Study Notes on David Potter's Ancient Rome: A New History - The Later Empire and the Transition to the Medieval World

The Abdication of Diocletian and the Tetrarchic Succession * Diocletian’s Genuine Wisdom: David Potter notes that Diocletian possessed a rare modesty and wisdom, realizing he could not govern the massive Roman Empire alone. He entrusted significant power to Constantius, who was outside his immediate local circle. * The Resignation of May 1, 305: In an unprecedented move, Diocletian changed the nature of the imperial office by voluntary resignation. The ceremony took place near Nicomedia at a high point approximately $3\,\text{miles}$ ($5\,\text{kilometers}$) from the city, a site where Galerius had originally assumed the purple. A column with an image of Jupiter marked the location. * Lactantius’s Account of the Ceremony: Diocletian addressed the soldiers with tears in his eyes, citing his weakness and desire for respite from his labors. He proclaimed Severus and Maximinus as the new Caesars. During the transition, Galerius brought Maximinus forward, and Diocletian placed his own purple cloak upon him. Diocletian then became \"Diocles\" once more and was carried by cart to his homeland in Split (modern Croatia). * Parallel Ceremony in the West: Simultaneously, Maximian resigned just outside Milan, with Severus becoming the new Caesar in the West and Constantius assuming the rank of Augustus at Trier. Maximian retired to a villa outside Rome. # The Rise of Constantine and the Failed Succession Plan * Instability Post-Diocletian: The succession plan deteriorated quickly because Constantius was dissatisfied that both Caesars (Severus and Maximinus) were loyalists of Galerius. * Administrative Divisions: While Diocletian had never formally divided the empire, the ensuing tensions led to the creation of four praetorian prefectures. Each prefecture controlled three dioceses. * The Vicarius: Each diocese was governed by a vicarius, a title derived from the Latin \"vice\" (signifying acting \"in place of\") the praetorian prefect for daily administration. * Territorial Distribution of the Prefectures: 1. Galerius: Administered the three dioceses of the Balkan provinces. 2. Maximinus: Ruled the three dioceses stretching from the Dardanelles to Egypt. 3. Severus: Controlled Italy, Africa, and Spain. 4. Constantius: Held sway in Gaul and Britain. * Strategic Shift of Egypt: A major administrative change was the transfer of Egypt to the Eastern administration. While Rome still received Egyptian grain and luxury goods from the Indian Ocean, resources were diverted toward Syria and the new capital district in northern Turkey. This shift recognized the economic and cultural divisions that ultimately contributed to the Western Empire's decline. * Proclamation at York: Constantius requested the return of his son Constantine, who was essentially a hostage in Galerius’s court. Constantine joined his father for a campaign in northern England. On $July\,25,\,AD\,306$, Constantius died at York, and the army declared Constantine emperor. # Crisis, Rebellion, and the Restoration of Order * Rebellion of Maxentius: Later in $AD\,306$, Maxentius (son of Maximian) claimed the throne at Rome, leveraging resentment over the extension of Diocletian's tax registration system to Italy. Maximian came out of retirement to support him. * Failure of Severus and Galerius: Severus attempted to suppress Maxentius but was betrayed by his troops, who remained loyal to Maximian. Severus was imprisoned and later murdered. In the summer of $AD\,307$, Galerius invaded Italy but could not besiege Rome due to the massive walls of Aurelian. Faced with supply shortages and a refusal by Maxentius to fight in the open, Galerius withdrew. * The Conference at Carnuntum ($AD\,308$): To prevent civil war, Diocletian emerged from retirement to assist Galerius. At a meeting on the Danube at Carnuntum, Maxentius was excluded. It was agreed that Constantine would be recognized as Augustus in his current territories and Caesar elsewhere. A new Augustus, the experienced general Licinius, was appointed. * End of the Old Guard: Diocletian retired once more to his palace, living three more years. Galerius died in $AD\,311$, shortly after attempting to maintain the tetrarchic system. Maximian committed suicide in $AD\,310$ after a failed attempt to seize power from his son-in-law, Constantine. # The Conversion of Constantine and the Battle of Saxa Rubra * The Spiritual Journey of $AD\,312$: As Constantine prepared to invade Italy, he underwent a spiritual transformation. He had previously aligned with Sol Invictus (the Sun God). In the spring of $AD\,312$, he began expressing confidence in their \"mens divina\" (Divine Mind). * Competing Narratives of Vision: 1. Panegyric of 313: Describes an immediate, personal inspiration from the Divine Mind that encouraged Constantine against the warnings of soothsayers. 2. Eusebius of Caesarea (Life of Constantine): Claims Constantine saw a cross-shaped trophy of light over the sun with the text \"By this conquer.\" That night, Christ allegedly appeared to him in a dream, urging him to use the sign as protection. * Ecclesiastical Ambiguity: Constantine routinely advertised his debt to the Christian god but also maintained imagery of the \"Invincible Sun.\" Some Christians adopted this solar imagery, equating Christ with the sun god. * The Decisive Battle: On $October\,28,\,AD\,312$, Constantine met Maxentius at Saxa Rubra near the Milvian Bridge. Maxentius died in the rout, and Constantine entered Rome in triumph. # Theological Disputes and the Nicene Creed * The Donatist Schism: In North Africa, a split emerged between those who had cooperated with persecutors under Diocletian and those who resisted. Constantine referred the matter to church councils, which ruled against the \"Donatists\" (led by Donatus). Constantine eventually abandoned the dispute after realizing third-party arbitration failed to stop Christian infighting. * The Arian Controversy: Arius of Alexandria argued that the Father was superior to the Son. The Bishop of Alexandria held that the Trinity was of the same \"essence.\" * The Council of Nicea ($AD\,325$): Constantine summoned Eastern bishops to resolve the nature of God. He proposed theological solutions and asserted his right to legislate for the global Christian community. * Verbatim Nicene Creed: \"We believe in one God, Father, ruler of all, maker of all things seen and unseen; and in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten from the Father as unique—being of the same essence as the Father—God from God, light from light, true God from true God…\". The creed declared anathema (accursed) those who said Christ was of a different substance or made liable to change. # The Refounding of Byzantium and the Tragedy of $AD\,326$ * Constantinople: Constantine chose Byzantium over Nicomedia or Troy to be his new capital. The design centered on the palace and a huge circus for public meetings. He built massive new churches while allowing old temples to remain, presenting Christianity as a supplement to the regime. * Population Incentives: Rather than force, Constantine used rewards and privileges to encourage senior officials to move to the new city. * The Crisis of Crispus and Fausta: In $AD\,326$, Constantine’s son Crispus was executed for treason, and his wife Fausta died in exile shortly after. Later pagan sources suggested a lurid tale of lust and false rape accusations, but Potter suggests a major political split within the regime was the likely cause. * Empress Helena: Following these deaths, Constantine’s mother Helena traveled to Palestine, overseeing church construction and allegedly discovering the True Cross. # The Evolution of the Late Roman Military * Structural Division: The army was split into two main groups: 1. Limitanei: Frontier units stationed at the borders. 2. Comitatenses (Comitatus): Mobile reserve units that could be deployed where needed. * Command Hierarchy: The army was divided into three commands (West, Balkans, East), each under a \"magister peditum\" (master of infantry) and \"magister equitum\" (master of cavalry). # Julian the Apostate and the Failure of Pagan Restoration * The Rise of Julian: A secret convert to traditional paganism, Julian rose to power in Gaul, winning a significant victory at Strasbourg in $AD\,357$. In $AD\,360$, his legions proclaimed him emperor in Paris. * Theology and Theurgy: Julian subscribed to theurgy (\"god-working\"), believing spiritual union occurred via mystic names revealed by oracles. He publicly sacrificed oxen and reopened temples. * Alienation of Subjects: Julian forbade Christians from teaching Classical rhetoric. He alienated the people of Antioch through his personal asceticism, beard (symbolizing a philosopher), and botching a grain shortage. He wrote a satire on himself titled \"The Beard Hater\". * Death in Persia ($AD\,363$): During a strike at Ctesiphon, Julian was mortally wounded by a spear in the thigh near the groin. His doctor, Oribasius, could not save him. His successor, Jovian, was forced to surrender territories won by Diocletian, including Nisibis. # The End of the Western Empire and Successor States * The Fall of 476: Romulus Augustus was deposed. The Roman Senate sent an embassy to Zeno in the East, claiming one emperor was enough and choosing Odovacer to govern Italy as a \"patrician.\" * The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Zeno later commissioned Theodoric the Amal (Ostrogoth) to oust Odovacer. Theodoric conquered Italy, ruling from Ravenna. * The Frankish Rise: Under King Clovis ($r.\,AD\,481-511$), the Franks defeated the Visigoths at the Battle of Vouille in $507$, taking over most of Gaul. # The Reign and Vision of Justinian ($AD\,527-565$) * The Nika Revolt ($AD\,532$): A massive riot in the circus at Constantinople, where the mob cried \"Nika!\" (Victory), early in Justinian's reign. This resulted in the massacre of tens of thousands of rioters and the destruction of much of the city, including Hagia Sophia. * The Role of Theodora: A former actress of Monophysite sympathies, she was a powerful co-ruler. Procopius’s \"Secret History\" provides a highly unflattering, sexualized account of her past, yet she stabilized the regime during the Nika Revolt and the plague. * Legal Codification: Led by the lawyer Tribonian, Justinian produced: 1. The Codex Justinianus: Imperial legislation from the 2nd century onward ($12$ books). 2. The Digest: A $50$-book compilation of jurists' work ($AD\,533$). 3. The Institutes: A legal textbook with the force of law. * Re-conquest of the West: General Belisarius captured Vandal North Africa ($AD\,533$) and occupied Rome and Ravenna, though the war in Italy dragged on, ruining the economy. * Ecclesiastical Councils: The Council of Ephesus ($AD\,431$) and Council of Chalcedon ($AD\,451$) highlighted splits between the \"One Nature\" (Monophysite) view and the \"Two Natures\" view. * Architecture: Following the Nika Revolt, Justinian rebuilt the Hagia Sophia. Its nave is $260\,\text{feet}$ ($80\,\text{meters}$) long with a dome over $180\,\text{feet}$ ($55\,\text{meters}$) high—the largest open-vaulted interior of the ancient world. * The Plague of $AD\,540$: A bubonic plague outbreak caused massive loss of life and shattered the imperial economy, which was already strained by cold winters and crop failures. # The Rise of Islam and the Transformation of the Mediterranean * Muhammad and the Hejira: In $AD\,622$, Muhammad’s flight from Mecca to Medina (the Hejira) marked the start of the Islamic dating system. * Islamic Conquests: Following Muhammad's death in $632$, Caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar directed armies against the weakened Roman and Persian empires. * The Battle of Yarmuk ($AD\,636$): A Roman army of approximately $40,000\,\text{men}$ under Vahan was annihilated by Arab forces near the Golan Heights. A south wind blew dust into the faces of the Romans, causing them to fall into the Yarmuk river. * The Fall of Alexandria ($AD\,642$): The departure of the Roman garrison from Alexandria marked the end of the Classical world and the beginning of the Medieval era, with the Mediterranean divided between Islamic and Germanic states. # Economic and Social Analysis of the Decline * Smelting and Mining Decline: Smelting declined overall after $AD\,650$. In Spain, mining sites dropped from $173$ to $21$. Britain dropped from $26$ to $3$. Iron mining in the Balkans ceased as imperial control failed. * Health Factors: Malaria increased in Italy due to failing drainage systems. Leprosy (Hansen's disease) reached epidemic proportions in the 6th-century East. * Dietary Shifts: Tastes in Gaul shifted from standard wheat to spelt. In Naples, pork consumption gave way to goat and sheep. The Vandals were noted for eating horse meat. * Theories of Decline: Potter identifies that while over $200$ reasons have been proposed, the primary failure was the \"privatization\" of state power by elites and the breakdown of the \"social contract\" where the state provided security in exchange for taxes. The fall of the East was a \"failure of ideology,\") where the court could no longer convince subjects that they were better off with Constantinople than without it.