Industrial Revolution
Chapters
Chapter 23, Lesson 1: The Industrial RevolutionChapter 24, Lesson 1: The Growth of Industrial ProsperityChapter 24, Lesson 2: The Emergence of Mass SocietyChapter 24, Lesson 4: Modern Ideas and Uncertainty
The Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution in Great Britain
→ took place during the 1780s, but took decades to spread to other Western nations’
Factors Contributing to Industrial Revolution
1) Agricultural Revolution: changed agricultural practices; began in the eighteenth century
expansion of farmland, good weather, improved transportation, and new crops → increased food supply
food was lower prices with less labor
2) Growth of Population: occurred due to increased food supply
Enclosure movement: landowners fenced off common lands
forced many peasants to move to towns, created a labor supply for factories
3) Capital: Britain had a ready supply of money to invest in new machines and factories
Entrepreneurs found new business opportunities and new ways to make profits
4) Natural Resources: plentiful
country’s rivers provided water power for the new factories + means for transporting raw materials and finished products
abundant supplies of coal and iron ore
5) Supply of Markets: gave British manufacturers a ready outlet for their goods
vast colonial empire, but British ships could transport goods anywhere in the world
domestic markets grew
Textile Manufacturing and the Industrial Revolution
Production of Cotton: Two-Step Process{
1) Spinners made cotton thread from raw cottons
2) Weavers wove the cotton thread into cloth on looms
}
→ usually done through their rural cottages, called Cottage Industry
Spinning Jenny: invented by James Hargreaves; made the spinning process much faster
Water-powered Loom: made it possible for the weaving of cloth to catch up with the spinning of thread
Steam Engine: improved, could now be used to spin and weave cotton
→ made it more efficient to bring workers to the new machines and have them work in factories near streams and rivers
→ cotton cloth production increased dramatically
Factory System: created a new labor system
made the cottage industry obsolete
workers were forced to work in shifts to keep the machine producing at a steady rate
factory owners wanted to use their machines constantly for productivity
The Factory System and Free Enterprise
Factory System: the use of machines, powered by water, steam, or electricity, to manufacture goods
featured the use of unskilled labor, centralization of machinery under one roof, standardization of parts used to operate machinery + manufacture goods
advanced the onset of the Industrial Revolution; goods were produced quickly and in mass quantities
Free Enterprise: an economic system where governments place few restrictions on business ownership or decisions
factory owners were able to make decisions based solely on the needs of their businesses → maximize production and make large profits
allowed for the rapid growth of industrialism
adopted by many European governments
Coal, Iron, and Railroads
→ Steam engines created by James Watt relied on coal + increased the need for coal and led to an expansion in coal production
Puddling: coke (derived from coal) was used to burn away impurities in pig iron (large supplies of crude iron) → created iron of high quality
changed the way iron was produced + important to the Industrial Revolution
→ iron was used to build new machines, especially trains
Railroads: particularly important to the success of the Industrial Revolution
first steam locomotive produced by Richard Trevithick; ran on an industrial rail line in Britain
created new jobs for farm laborers and peasants
less expensive transportation → lower priced goods → larger markets
→ more sales → more demand → need for more factories + more machinery == rapid economic growth
The Spread of Industrialization
→ Great Britain became the world’s first industrial nation + the world’s richest nation by the mid-nineteenth century
→ Belgium, France, and the German states were the first to be industrialized in continental Europe, governments actively encouraged such development
→ railroads also spread across Europe, connecting various nations
Industrialization in the United States: occurred during the first half of the nineteenth century
Steamboat: Robert Fulton built the first paddle-wheel steamboat; made transportation easier on the waterways of the United States
Railroads became important; built one that covered the continental United States
women + girls made up a large majority of the workers in the textile factories
Social Impact of Industrialization
Social Impact of Industrialization
Population Growth: European population nearly doubled to 200 million
due to decline in death rates, wars, and major epidemic diseased
increase in food supply → people had more resistance to disease
Famine Poverty: impacted global migration and urbanization
more than 1,000,000 people passed during the Irish potato famine + poverty led to a million more people immigrate to the Americas
Industrialization <> urbanization
Rapid Growth of Cities: led to pitiful living conditions for many; very poor and unsanitary
New Social Classes
Industrial Capitalism: an economic system based on industrial production, developed + dominated during the Industrial Revolution
produced the industrial middle class
→ Bourgeoisie: came to include people in industry/banking, lawyers, teachers, and doctors
Industrial Middle Class: emerged during the Industrial Revolution, made up of people who built the factories, bought machines, and developed markets
Industrial Working Class: faced wretched working conditions
no security of employment, no minimum wage
women and children made up parts of the workforce in various industries; paid half or less than half of what men received
men began to earn most of family income, women took over daily care + performed low paying jobs
Early Socialism
Socialism: economic system where the government owns and controls some means of production, such as factories and utilities
→ largely an idea of intellectuals, but eventually became deemed as impractical dreams
Mass Society and Democracy
The Second Industrial Revolution
→ gave rise to steel, chemicals, electricity, and petroleum
→ first industrial revolution was known for textiles, railroads, iron and coal
New Products and Patterns
Bessemer Process: a new process for making high-quality steel efficiently and cheaply
steel soon replaced iron + used to build lighter, smaller, and faster machines and engines
Electricity: a new valuable form of energy
easily converted into other energy forms (heat, light, and motion) + moved easily through wires
electric lights began to be in use after the use invention of the lightbulb by Thomas Edison
Telephone: invented by Alexander Graham Bell and sent the first radio waves across the Atlantic Ocean
→ streetcars and subways powered by electricity began to appear in major European cities
→ Factory system was refined with electricity as factories could remain open 24 hours a day
Internal-combustion engine: provided a new source of power in transportation; fired by oil and gasoline
gave rise to ocean liners with oil-fired engines, as well as to the airplane and the automobile
Assembly Line: a new manufacturing method pioneered by Henry Ford
increased manufacturing efficiency and industrial productivity
allowed for much more efficient mass production of goods
→ prices for manufactured goods decreased because of reduced transportation costs
→ department stores began to sell a new range of consumer goods (clocks,bicycles, electric lights, and typewriters)
Two Economic Zones: Europe became divided into two economic zones where not everyone benefited from the second Industrial Revolution
Great Britain, Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Germany, the western part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and northern Italy → advanced industrialized section
high standards of living, adequate systems of transportation
south + east of Europe was still widely agricultural (Austria-Hungary, Spain, Portugal, Balkan kingdoms, and Russia)
provided food + raw materials for industrial countries; much lower standard of living
Toward a World Economy
→ fueled by the success of the Second Industrial Revolution, combined with the growth of transportation
→ global trade flourished and prospered
→ European capital was invested abroad to develop railways, mines, electrical power plants, and banks; allowed Europe to dominate the world economy
Organizing the Working Classes
→ many workers suffered from poor working + living conditions despite a raise in wages
Unions: many industrial workers formed socialist political parties + trade unions
sought to represent the interests of workers in the gov. and to organize workers’ votes
based on the theory developed by Karl Marx
Communism: political and economic system in which government owns the means of production
include the ideas of a classless society and the end of private property
one form of Marxist socialism
Marx’s Theory
The Communist Manifesto: a book written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
blamed the system of industrial capitalism for horrible working conditions
formed the core concepts of socialism and communism
Marx: key authors + pioneers of Communism and socialism
believed that all of world history was a “history of class struggles”
oppressor and oppressed have always “stood in constant opposition to one another”
Oppressors (Bourgeoisie) - those who owned means of production (land, raw materials, money) + controlled society and government
Oppressed (Proletariat) - owned nothing and depended on the owners of the means of production
saw society was more and more splitting up into the bourgeoisie and the proletariat
predicted the struggle between the two groups would finally lead to a revolution + that the proletariat would form a dictatorship to organize the means of production
believed that a final revolution would ultimately produce a classless society
wanted to get rid of private property, inspired by Vladimir Lenin + the Bolsheviks
Socialist Parties
→ emerged in Europe, where some were met with electoral success
Second International: an association of national socialist groups that would fight against capitalism worldwide
comprised of various socialist parties that joined together
parties were often divided over their own goals
1) Pure Marxists: thought that capitalism could be defeated by only a violent revolution
2) Revisionists: rejected the revolutionary approach; argued that workers must continue to organize in mass political parties and work with other parties to gain reforms
Trade Unions
→ workers organized in unions to improve their conditions
Strike: when a union calls on its members to stop work in order to pressure employers to meet their demands for higher wages or improved factory safety
→ laws were passed that made strikes illegal under any circumstances
→ trade unions had varying degrees of success in helping working conditions
The Emergence of Mass Society
The New Urban Environment
→ governments were now required to cater to the entirety of society, rather than just the wealthy individuals; especially in housing and public sanitation
→ people from rural areas continuously migrated from rural areas to cities to find work in factories as there were fewer jobs in rural areas
Public Health + Sanitation Reforms: allowed cities to grow faster + double population
city governments created boards of health to improve housing quality
clean water and effective sewage system were implemented as they were also critical towards public health
→ most people enjoyed a higher standard of living; but great poverty still remained
→ several middle-class groups
Societal Stratifications
The New Elite
→ a new group of elites, only ~5% of the population, emerged and controlled 30-40% of the wealth
→ comprised of the most successful industrialists, bankers, and merchants + landed aristocracy
→ became leaders in the government and military
The Diverse Middle Classes
1) Middle Group: below the upper-middle class, included lawyers, doctors, members of civil service, business managers, engineers, architects, accountants, and chemists
2) Lower-Middle Class: small shopkeepers, traders, and prosperous farmers
3) White-collar workers: between lower-middle class + lowers clases, including traveling salespeople, bookkeepers, telephone operators, department store salespeople, and secretaries
were not highly paid, but often committed to middle-class ideals
→ all middle classes shared a certain lifestyle with values that dominated society
→ all believed in hard work, open to everyone and guaranteed positive results
The Working Classes
→ also referred to as the “lower classes”, made up 80% of the population; including landholding peasants, farm laborers, and sharecroppers
Urban Working Class: consisted of many different groups; might be skilled artisans or semi-skilled laborers, but many were unskilled day laborers or domestic servants
→ urban workers began to live more comfortably as reforms created better living conditions
Women’s Experiences
→ women were mainly defined by their families + household roles, but they struggled to change their status
New Job Opportunities
→ working class groups maintained the idea that women should remain and home to bear + nurture children and should not be allowed in the industrial workforce
→ changed with the Second Industrial Revolution; opened new jobs for women
→ Industrial plants + retail shops hired women as clerks, typists, secretaries, and salesclerks
→ expansion of government services also created job opportunities for women; allowed women to take jobs in education, health, and social services
Marriage and Family
→ number of children born to the average woman began to decline → most significant development in the modern family
→ central institution of middle-class life; fostered an ideal of togetherness
→ most working-class women had to earn money to help support their families
→ children often worked in factories to supplement family income + obligated to stay at home to care for family members
Women’s Rights
Feminism: movement for women’s rights, had its beginnings during the Enlightment
some women advocated equality for women based on the doctrine of natural rights (modern feminism)
→ women in the US + Europe argued for the right of women to own property
→ some middle and upper class women fought for + gained access to universities + wanted occupations that were traditionally dominated by men
→ many women entered the medical field by becoming nurses
Women’s Suffrage: the movement for feminism expanded as women called for equal political rights
believed that the right to vote was the key to improving their overall position + the right of full citizenship in the nation-state
→ British women’s movement was the most active in Europe
Women’s Social and Political Union: used unusual publicity stunts to call attention to its demands
Education and Leisure
→ Western governments began to finance a system of primary education; children between the ages of 6 and 12 were required to attend schools
Reasons
1) Industrialization: Second Industrial Revolution required trained, skilled workers
2) Political: giving more people the right to vote created a need for better-educated voters; primary schools instilled patriotism
→ new jobs for women as teachers opened up
→ Second Industrial Revolution allowed people to pursue new forms of leisure (what people do for fun after work)
→ amusement parks, dance halls, and organized team sports became enjoyable ways for people to spend their leisure hours
Modern Ideas and Uncertainty
The Culture of Modernity
→ many writers and artists rebelled against the traditional literary and artistic styles that had dominated European cultural life since the Renaissance → called Modernism
Literature
→ followed the naturalist style that wrote modernist works tht reflected common social concerns
→ symbolists believed the external world was only a collection of symbols reflecting the true reality (the human mind)
→ believed that art should function for its own sake, not criticize or seek to understand society
Painting and Architecture
→ Western artists had tried to represent reality as accurately as possible since the Renaissance, but artists began seeking new forms of expression
Impressionism: movement that began in France, a group of artist rejected indoor studios and went to the countryside to paint nature directly
Claude Monet: a key impressionist, paintings captured the interplay of light, water, and sky and demonstrated the artistic ideals of time
Postimpressionism: arose in France 10 years about Impressionism
Vincent Van Gogh: believed art was a spiritual experience; interested in color + believed that it could act as its own form of language
believed artists should paint what they felt; reflected the history of increasing individual freedoms in Europe
→ artist were no longer convinced that their main goal was to represent reality, especially in visual arts
→ realism in painting decline due to the increase in photography, after the invention of the Kodak camera
→ artists tended to focus less on mirroring reality, and more on creating reality
Pablo Picasso: created Cubism (the use of geometric designs to re-create reality in the viewer’s mind)
gave rise to Abstract painting, an important figure in modern art
Abstract painting: sought to avoid visual reality altogether, belief that art should speak directly to the soul and only use line and color to do so
Functionalism (Architecture): the idea that buildings should be functional and useful
focus on removing a building’s ornamentation demonstrated the artistic ideal of the time + the growing passion to be “modern”
used reinforced concrete, steel frames, and electric elevators to build skyscrapers
Music
→ developments in music paralleled those in painting
The Rite of Spring: ballet written by Stravinsky; exploited expressive sounds + bold rhythms
prompted a riot by an outraged audience
Uncertainty Grows
→ many believed that by applying scientific laws, humans could understand the physical world and reality
Marie Curie; discovered an element called radium + its energy (radiation) that apparently came from within the atom itself
matter was originally thought to be made of solid material bodies called atoms
showed that atoms were not just material bodies but small, active worlds
Albert Einstein: provided a new view of the universe
developed the theory of relativity
stated that space and time are not absolute but are relative yo the observer
neither space nor time has an existence independent of human experience + matter and energy reflect the relativity of time and space
concluded that matter is just another form of energy
Sigmund Freud: proposed theories regarding the nature of the human mind
believed that human behavior was strongly determined by past experiences and internal forces by which people were largely unaware
Psychoanalysis: a method by which a therapist could probe deeply into the patient’s memory to retrace the repressed thoughts back to their childhood origins
Extreme Nationalism
→ Nationalism became more intense as extreme nationals used Social Darwinism to justify racism
Social Darwinism: the radical belief that Darwin’s theory of natural selection could be applied to modern human societies
argued that social progress came from “survival of the fittest”
allowed some people to reject the idea that they should take care of the less fortunate