Catholic Reformation Notes Chp.12

The Catholic Reformation

The Protestant Reformation was not the only reform movement in Europe. Many individuals desired ecclesiastical reform before Luther's protest, particularly in Spain under Queen Isabella and Cardinal Francisco Jimenez de Cisneros.

Reformation of Spanish Catholicism

Queen Isabella inherited the crown of Castile in 1474, and the church was in dire need of reform. Many prelates were also lords, with more interest in intrigue than in spiritual matters. Lower clergy were poorly trained, and monasticism was in decline. Isabella aimed to reform the church by securing the right to appoint high ecclesiastical officials. Her husband, Ferdinand, King of Aragon, sought similar rights for political power. Isabella appointed capable candidates, while Ferdinand appointed his six-year-old illegitimate son as Archbishop of Saragossa.

Isabella found support in her confessor, Francisco Jimenez de Cisneros, an austere Franciscan who had studied Hebrew and Chaldean while imprisoned for refusing corrupt practices. He was appointed Archbishop of Toledo at Isabella's request, despite his initial refusal, which required a papal bull from Pope Alexander VI to force his acceptance.

Isabella and Jimenez reformed convents and monasteries by personally visiting monastic houses, urging obedience to vows, and punishing those who resisted. Protests to Rome were dismissed, strengthening Isabella's position. Jimenez's scholarship, especially his interest in scripture, was crucial to Isabella's reformation. She believed in learned leadership and supported studies, surrounding herself with intellectuals. With Ferdinand's backing, she promoted the printing of books. Jimenez founded the University of Alcala and published the Complutension Polyglot.

The University of Alcala produced notable figures like Cervantes and Loyola. The Complutension Polyglot was a multilingual Bible edition with Hebrew, Greek, and Latin texts in parallel columns, involving three Jewish converts, Greek scholars, and Latin scholars. The work comprised six volumes: four for the Old Testament, one for the New Testament, and one for Hebrew, Chaldean, and Greek grammar. Completed in 1517 but published in 1520, Jimenez saw it as opening the sacred sources of religion for a purer theology.

Despite their scholarly interests, Jimenez and Isabella did not tolerate doctrinal deviation. Studies were encouraged for reforming customs and morals, but doctrinal deviations were severely punished. Jimenez, as Grand Inquisitor, allowed no doctrinal diversity. This was typical of the Catholic Reformation, which aimed to purify the church through austerity, devotion, and scholarship, while strictly adhering to traditional dogma.

Polemics Against Protestantism

The rise of Protestantism changed the Catholic Reformation, shifting the focus to responding to doctrinal reforms. Catholic reformers defended traditional doctrine and reformed customs, especially where Protestantism was a threat. Some Catholic leaders were scholars, while others feared humanism. John Eck, who debated Luther, published his German Bible translation in 1537. James Lautomus opposed both Protestants and humanists, arguing that reading scripture in Latin was sufficient. Scholarship became necessary to counter Protestant teachings, leading to theologians like Robert Bellarmine and Caesar Baronius.

Bellarmine systematized Catholic theological arguments against Protestant claims, holding the chair of polemics in Rome from 1576. His "On the Controversies of the Christian Faith," completed in 1593, became the classical source against Protestantism. Bellarmine also participated in Galileo's trial, which condemned the idea that the Earth revolves around the sun. Caesar Baronius wrote "Ecclesiastical Annals" in response to the "Centuries of Magdeburg," which criticized Roman Catholicism. Gottfried Arnold's works in the late 17th century attempted a more objective church history.

New Orders

Despite the decline of monastic life, many still took their vows seriously. The 16th century saw the reformation of old orders and the founding of new ones. Some new orders sought to renew ancient strict observances, while others adapted to the times. The Discalced Carmelites, founded by Saint Teresa, exemplified the former. The Jesuits, under Ignatius Loyola, exemplified the latter by addressing new challenges.

Teresa spent her youth in Avila. Her grandfather was a converted Jew. She joined the Carmelite Convent of the Incarnation against her father's wishes. Unhappy with the relaxed monastic lifestyle, she spent her time reading devotional books. After the Inquisition's list of forbidden books included her favorites, she had a vision where Jesus promised to be her open book. Experiencing frequent visions, she struggled to determine their authenticity. With the help of learned friars, she became convinced her visions were genuine. She felt called to found a stricter convent, overcoming opposition to establish her new house. Her visions led her to found similar houses throughout Spain. Despite accusations, she gained respect and spread her order, known as the Discalced Carmelites for wearing sandals. John of the Cross, later Saint John of the Cross, joined her. Together, they extended Teresa's reform to the male branch of the Discalced Carmelites, making Teresa the only woman to found monastic orders for both women and men.

Teresa's involvement in administrative matters did not hinder her mystical contemplations, visions, and ecstasies. Her writings on mystical devotion have become classics, and in 1970, she was named a Doctor of the Church. Ignatius Loyola, from an aristocratic family, initially sought military glory. After being wounded at the siege of Pamplona, he turned to devotional books, experiencing a vision of the Virgin Mary with the child Jesus. This led to a profound change, and he devoted himself to serving the Virgin. He went on a pilgrimage to Montserrat and withdrew to Monresa, struggling with his sense of sin, similar to Luther. He experienced temptations, including suicidal thoughts, but overcame them by crying out to God. Unlike Luther, Loyola did not break with the Catholic Church but dedicated his life to its service.

Loyola aimed to serve the church. Hoping to become a missionary to the Turks, he went to the Holy Land but was forced to leave by Franciscans. He then studied theology at the universities of Barcelona, Alcala, Salamanca, and Paris. He gathered a small band of followers, and in 1534, they made vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience to the Pope at Montserrat. The Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540. They became a key instrument against Protestantism, while also pursuing missionary work in the Far East and the New World. The Jesuits were a powerful weapon for the reformed papacy, with a military-like organization. Many were scholars who contributed to the polemic against Protestantism.

Papal Reformation

During Luther's time, Pope Leo X focused on Roman embellishments and Medici interests, leaving little hope for reform from Rome. Some called for lay rulers to reform the church, while others advocated conciliarism. Pope Adrian VI offered some hope but was thwarted by the Curia. Pope Clement VII continued similar policies, resulting in England's independence and the sack of Rome. Pope Paul III was ambiguous, trusting astrology and practicing nepotism and exploiting funds from all nations in Europe. However, he recognized the Jesuits and appointed a commission to report on the need for reformation. The commission's report was used by enemies of the papacy. Paul convened the Council of Trent in 1545. Pope Julius III was marked by vices and nepotism. Pope Marcellus II was committed to reformation, but his pontificate was cut short by his death. Pope Paul IV, formerly Cardinal Giambietro Carafa, aimed to correct evils and enforce uniformity, increasing the activity of the Inquisition and publishing the Index of Forbidden Books. He cleansed the Roman Curia and placed the papacy at the head of the Catholic Reformation.

The Council of Trent

Luther and other reformers had repeatedly called for a universal council. The popes initially opposed it, fearing a resurgence of conciliarism. Finally, under Paul III, when the split between Protestants and Catholics became permanent, Rome considered a universal council. After negotiations, the Council met at Trent in December 1545, in imperial territory. Although, it was attended by few prelates (31 in the first session and 213 in the last). While previous councils addressed specific problems, the Council of Trent addressed the magnitude of the issues posed by the Protestant Reformation and the great need for reformation within the Church. It went beyond condemning Protestantism, and felt obligated to discuss every questioned item of theology and issued decrees for the reformation of the church, taking measures regulating the life and worship of the church, linking uniformity with orthodoxy.

The Council of Trent, considered the nineteenth ecumenical council by the Roman Catholic Church, had a checkered history. Relations grew tense between Pope Paul III and the emperor, and the pope moved the gathering to the Papal states; however, the emperor ordered his bishops to remain at Trent, causing the council to be suspended in 1547. It was reconvened in 1551 and suspended again the following year. In 1555, Paul IV became pope.

The decrees of the Council of Trent were vast in scope. As measures of reformation, it ordered bishops to reside in their sees, condemned pluralism, listed and defined the obligations of the clergy, regulated the use of relics and indulgences, and ordered the founding of seminaries for the training of the ministry. It also promoted the study of Thomas Aquinas, making his the dominant theology in the Catholic church. On the other hand, it took measures against Protestantism. In this vein, it declared that the Latin translation of the bible, the Vulgate, would be authoritative in matters of dogma, That tradition has an authority parallel to that of scripture, that there are seven sacraments, that the mass is a true sacrifice that can be offered for the benefit of the deceased, that communion in both kinds, that is with the laity receiving both the bread and the wine, is not necessary. That justification is based on good works done through the collaboration between grace and the believer, and so forth.

Despite its history and resistance from sovereigns, the Council of Trent marked the birth of the modern Catholic Church, a reaction against Protestantism. For centuries, the Roman church refused to concede the deep roots of Protestant elements in Christian tradition. It was only later in the twentieth century that the Catholic church was able to set its own agenda for reformation apart from a reaction to Protestantism.