AP English Language and Composition: Key Rhetorical and Literary Terms

Grammatical Elements and Sentence Structure

• Predicate Adjectives:

  • Definition: A specific type of subject complement consisting of an adjective, a group of adjectives, or an adjective clause that follows a linking verb. It resides in the predicate of the sentence and serves to modify or describe the subject.
  • Illustrative Example: In the sentence "My boyfriend is tall, dark, and handsome," the group of words "tall, dark, and handsome" functions as a set of predicate adjectives describing the subject "boyfriend."

• Predicate Nominative:

  • Definition: A second type of subject complement consisting of a noun, a group of nouns, or a noun clause that renames the subject. Like the predicate adjective, it follows a linking verb and is positioned in the predicate of the sentence.
  • Illustrative Example: In the sentence "Abe Lincoln was a man of integrity," the phrase "man of integrity" functions as the predicate nominative because it renames the subject, Abe Lincoln.
  • Exam Context: The term "predicate nominative" or "predicate adjective" occasionally appears in multiple-choice questions.

• Periodic Sentence:

  • Definition: A sentence structure that places its central meaning in a main independent clause at the very end. This final independent clause is preceded by a dependent phrase or clause that cannot stand alone.
  • Illustrative Example: "Ecstatic with my AP scores, I let out a loud shout of joy!"
  • Rhetorical Effect: Used to add structural variety and heighten emphasis.
  • Cross-Reference: Compare with a loose sentence.

• Parallelism:

  • Etymology & Nomenclature: Derived from Greek roots meaning "beside one another." Also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure.
  • Definition: The grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to establish structural similarity. This frequently involves the repetition of a grammatical element, such as a preposition or a verbal phrase.
  • Illustrative Examples:
  • Opening of Charles Dickens's novel A Tale of Two Cities: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity…."
  • Julius Caesar's statement: "I came, I saw, I conquered"
  • Alfred, Lord Tennyson's poem "Ulysses": "To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield."
  • Rhetorical Effects: Acts as a central organizing force, attracts reader attention, adds emphasis and structural coherence, or provides a pleasing, musical rhythm.

• Repetition:

  • Definition: The duplication, whether exact or approximate, of any element of language—such as a sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern.
  • Rhetorical Impact: When executed poorly, repetition bores the audience; when executed skillfully, it links and emphasizes key ideas while offering the reader the comfort of recognizing a familiar pattern.
  • Cross-Reference: See parallelism.

Figurative Language and Rhetorical Devices

• Onomatopoeia:

  • Definition: A figure of speech in which words are used to imitate natural sounds.
  • Examples: Words such as buzz, hiss, hum, crack, whinny, and murmur.
  • Exam Application: This term is not tested directly in the multiple-choice section. When identified in essay passages, focus on analyzing its specific stylistic effect.

• Oxymoron:

  • Etymology: Originates from the Greek term for "pointedly foolish."
  • Definition: A figure of speech in which an author pairs contradictory terms to suggest an underlying paradox.
  • Examples: "jumbo shrimp" and "cruel kindness."
  • Exam Application: Unlikely to appear in multiple-choice questions, but may be used by authors in reading passages or incorporated effectively into student essay analysis and writing.

• Paradox:

  • Definition: A statement that initially appears self-contradictory or opposed to common sense, but upon closer examination reveals a degree of truth or validity.
  • Illustrative Example: In Act 1, Scene 1 of Macbeth, the witches close with the cryptic remark: "Fair is foul, and foul is fair…."

• Personification:

  • Definition: A figure of speech in which concepts, animals, or inanimate objects are endowed with human attributes, emotions, or behaviors.
  • Function: Designed to make abstract ideas, animals, or objects appear more vivid and tangible to the reader.

• Rhetorical Question:

  • Definition: A question asked strictly for effect, expecting no literal answer because the response is already implied or assumed.

• Sarcasm:

  • Etymology: Derived from the Greek meaning "to tear flesh."
  • Definition: Language featuring bitter, caustic phrasing intended to hurt, mock, or ridicule someone or something.
  • Relationship to Irony: Sarcasm may utilize irony as a mechanism, but not all ironic statements are sarcastic (since not all irony aims to ridicule).
  • Rhetorical Impact: When done well, sarcasm is witty and insightful; when done poorly, it is simply cruel.

• Parody:

  • Definition: A literary or artistic work that closely imitates the style or content of another work with the specific intent of creating a comic effect or engaging in ridicule.
  • Mechanisms:
  • As Comedy: Distorts or exaggerates the distinctive characteristics of the original work.
  • As Ridicule: Mimics the original by borrowing specific words, phrases, or stylistic elements to expose and highlight its weaknesses.
  • Qualitative Distinction: Well-crafted parody provides genuine insight into the source work, whereas poorly executed parody remains an ineffectual imitation.
  • Audience Prerequisite: Full appreciation usually requires the audience to recognize literary allusions and understand the work being parodied, though certain parodies eventually take on a life of their own independent of the original text.

Rhetorical Foundations and Modes

• Rhetoric:

  • Etymology: Originates from the Greek word for "orator."
  • Definition: The study and application of principles governing effective, eloquent, and persuasive writing and speech.

• Rhetorical Appeal:

  • Definition: The persuasive strategies utilized by a writer to engage an audience's attention and shape their response to a work. Aristotle classified these into three core appeals:
  1. Logos: Employs logical reasoning by building clear, well-supported arguments. It pairs central ideas with concrete, appropriate evidence and structured reasoning to arrive at a rational conclusion.
  2. Ethos: Establishes speaker credibility and trust. Derived from the concept representing the shared attitudes, values, and characteristics of a group or era, ethos presents the writer as reliable, ethical, and attentive to the reader's best interests.
  3. Pathos: Appeals directly to the audience's emotions, values, and personal interests. By fostering sympathy, the writer renders the audience more receptive to their claims.

• Rhetorical Modes:

  • Definition: A flexible term referring to the distinct varieties, conventions, and purposes of major forms of writing (also known as modes of discourse). The four primary modes are:
  1. Exposition (Expository Writing): Designed to explain and analyze information by presenting a central thesis, relevant supporting evidence, and detailed discussion. AP essay prompts frequently call for expository writing.
  2. Argumentation: Designed to prove the validity of an idea or perspective through sound logic, thorough analysis, and persuasive reasoning. Persuasive writing is a specialized form of argumentation that adds a call to action. Prompts regularly require constructing formal arguments.
  3. Description: Designed to re-create, invent, or visually convey a person, place, event, or object so the reader can mentally picture it. Often engages all five senses to create sensuous, picturesque imagery. Can range from objective and straightforward to subjective and emotionally charged.
  4. Narration: Designed to tell a story or recount a series of events. This mode regularly incorporates descriptive techniques.

• Prose:

  • Definition: One of the major structural divisions of genre, encompassing all forms of fiction and nonfiction written in ordinary syntax resembling everyday spoken language.
  • Scope: Technical classification includes anything that is not poetry or drama. Consequently, reading passages on AP examinations consist of prose, though prose authors frequently integrate poetic and dramatic techniques.

Style, Perspective, and Narrative Tone

• Narrative:

  • Definition: The telling of a story or an account detailing an event or a sequence of events.

• Pedantic:

  • Definition: An adjective describing language, phrasing, or an overall tone that is excessively scholarly, academic, or bookish.

• Point of View:

  • Definition: In literature, the specific perspective from which a story is narrated. Divided into two main categories and several subcategories:
  1. First-Person Narrator: Narrates using the first-person pronoun "I" and participates directly in the story. Can fulfill one of three roles:
     • Protagonist: The central hero or heroine.
     • Participant: A character in a secondary or supporting role.
     • Observer: A character who witnesses and reports the action without driving it.
  2. Third-Person Narrator: Narrates events using third-person pronouns ("he," "she," "it"). Subdivided into:
     • Third-Person Omniscient: A narrator with all-knowing, godlike awareness who reveals the inner thoughts, feelings, and actions of any or all characters at any point.
     • Third-Person Limited-Omniscient: A narrator who reveals the internal thoughts and feelings of only one character, presenting all other characters solely through their external actions.
  • Exam Context Distinction:
  • Multiple-Choice Section: Refers strictly to narrative perspective as categorized above.
  • Essay Section: When asked to analyze an author's point of view, the term refers to the author's overall attitude.