Imperialism in the Philippines: American Influence and Political Development

End of the Philippine-American War and the Dawn of American Imperialism

On July 2, President of the United States declared the end of the Filipino-American War. By 1902, the U.S. Congress formally established the Insular Government through the enactment of the Philippine Organic Act, which abolished the office of the military governor, making the Philippine Commission the upper house.

The Philippine Organic Act of 1902

The Philippine Organic Act served as the basic law until it was replaced by the 1935 Constitution. Provincial borders were maintained from the Spanish colonial period, with some less productive provinces merged into others for management and taxation purposes. The Philippine Commission represented the U.S. President in the Philippines. Development was conditional on achieving peace, meaning opposition to American occupation had to be suppressed. For example, Macario Sakay was arrested in 1906 and executed in 1907.

Urban Development

In 1908, the University of the Philippines was founded. Manila and Baguio were developed into urban centers, Manila as the seat of government and Baguio as a multifunctional colonial hill station and the summer capital. With the enactment of the city charter of Manila in 1901, Intramuros became one of its 11 districts. These districts included Paco, Malate, Ermita, Intramuros, San Miguel, San Paolo, Quiapo, Santa Cruz, Binondo, San Nicolas, and Tondo. Santa Ana and Pandacan were added in 1935 when the Commonwealth of the Philippines was inaugurated, with Manila becoming the official capital. Daniel Burnham designed Baguio, mirroring the city planning principles used in the U.S., with roads leading to a central point.

American Democracy and Political System

American democracy became the foundation of the political system. Vital state institutions, agencies, and bureaus were developed. A representative system was built from local levels through elections, backed by political parties. The patron client system, or padrino system, became prominent, emphasizing "whom you know" over "what you know."

Rise of Influential Politicians

The rise of Manuel Quezon and Sergio Osmena marked this period. Quezon was charismatic and a brilliant orator, mastering congressional procedures and English proficiency. Osmena, from a prominent Cebu family, joined the Partido Nacionalista and was elected speaker of the Philippine Assembly in 1907, with Quezon as the majority floor leader.

Filipinization Movement

The shift in U.S. politics from Republican to Democrat, with the election of Woodrow Wilson in 1912, led to the Filipinization movement. Democrats favored Philippine independence or autonomy. Wilson appointed Francis Burton Harrison as governor, broadening Filipino power and allowing the Nationalista party to determine local appointments. Filipinos were allowed to manage the state budget and access official information, with authority transferred from the U.S. Army to civilian Filipino officials. Local leaders, including Muslims and highlanders from Cordillera, were welcomed into the government. By 1919, only 58 Americans held higher offices in the Insular Service, compared to 2,623 in 1913.

Philippine Autonomy Act (Jones Law) of 1916

The Philippine Autonomy Act, also known as the Jones Law, set the stage for eventual independence. It abolished the Philippine Commission and transferred legislative functions to a new bicameral legislature. Filipinos gained equal say in policy making and budget preparation. Political appointments based on kinship and cronyism became standard practice.

Political Maneuvering and Independence Missions

Quezon and Osmena experienced a rivalry. Osmena, along with Manuel Roxas, headed the OSROX mission to the U.S., resulting in the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act, which proposed a 12-year transition period. Quezon then appealed to U.S. senators and secured the Tydings-McDuffie Act, stipulating a 10-year transitional period starting in 1935.

Commonwealth Government

The 1935 Constitution was promulgated, and Manuel L. Quezon took office as the first president of the Commonwealth on November 15, 1935. The Commonwealth period (1935-1941) saw significant progress, with the government transforming the cityscape through public infrastructure projects. Quezon City was planned as the new capital, featuring a neoclassical capital building with a 52-meter high dome. National defense measures were introduced, including the modernization of the Philippine Army and the implementation of ROTC, the government was reorganized, and social justice programs were enacted, including minimum wage laws and public defenders. Education progressed with the creation of the National Council of Education, and women's suffrage was recognized in 1937. A national language based on Tagalog was implemented through Executive Order 134.

Nationalism and Political Tactics

Politicians diverted attention from cronyism and the spoils system by promoting complete, immediate, and absolute independence, leveraging Filipino nationalism.

World War II and Japanese Occupation

The Commonwealth period was interrupted by World War II and the Japanese occupation. The Japanese aimed to bring the Philippines back to Asia, championing the idea of Asia for the Asiatics, but implemented policies that resulted in discrimination and alienation through censorship, imposition of the Japanese language, and strict controls which conflicted with the American principles instilled.