### COGNITIVE APPROACH (SAQ - Full Answers)
#### 1. Outline/Describe Schema Theory
- Definition: Schemas are mental frameworks that organize and interpret information based on prior experience.
- Key Concepts:
- Assimilation: Fitting new information into existing schemas.
- Accommodation: Adjusting schemas to fit new information.
- Martin & Halverson (1983) Study:
- Participants: Children (5–6 years old).
- Method: Shown pictures of gender-consistent and inconsistent activities (e.g., a girl playing with a truck).
- Findings: Children misremembered gender-inconsistent images (e.g., recalling a boy playing with the truck).
- Conclusion: Schemas distort memory to fit pre-existing beliefs.
#### 2. Outline/Describe One Study Investigating Schema Theory
- Martin & Halverson (1983) (as above).
#### 3. Outline/Describe One Memory Model
- Multi-Store Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968):
- Sensory Memory: Brief retention of sensory info (<1 sec).
- Short-Term Memory (STM): Limited capacity (~7 items), duration (~30 sec).
- Long-Term Memory (LTM): Unlimited capacity, permanent storage.
- Supporting Study: Milner (HM case, 1957) – Hippocampus removal impaired LTM formation but spared STM.
#### 4. Outline/Describe One Study Investigating Memory
- Loftus & Palmer (1974):
- Participants: 45 students.
- Method: Watched car crash videos, asked "How fast were the cars going when they smashed/hit each other?"
- Findings: "Smashed" led to higher speed estimates (40.8 mph vs. 34 mph for "hit").
- Conclusion: Leading questions alter memory reconstruction.
#### 5. Outline/Describe Decision Making
- Definition: Cognitive process of selecting a course of action from alternatives.
- Key Concept: Heuristics (mental shortcuts) often lead to biases.
- Tversky & Kahneman (1974) Anchoring Bias Study:
- Method: Participants spun a wheel (rigged to land on 10 or 65), then estimated % of African nations in the UN.
- Findings: Higher wheel numbers led to higher estimates (e.g., 45% vs. 25%).
- Conclusion: Initial anchors distort judgments.
#### 6. Outline/Describe One Study Investigating Decision Making
- Tversky & Kahneman (1974) (as above).
#### 7. Outline/Describe Reconstructive Memory
- Definition: Memory is actively rebuilt during recall, influenced by schemas and external cues.
- Loftus & Palmer (1974) (as above).
- Additional Evidence: Bartlett (1932) – "War of the Ghosts" study showed cultural schemas distort recall.
#### 8. Outline/Describe One Study Investigating Reconstructive Memory
- Loftus & Palmer (1974) (as above).
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### BIOLOGICAL APPROACH (SAQ - Full Answers)
#### 1. Outline/Describe One Technique Used to Study the Brain
- Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI):
- Measures: Blood flow changes (oxygen use) in active brain areas.
- Strengths: High spatial resolution, non-invasive.
- Limitations: Expensive, poor temporal resolution.
- Example Study: Draganski (2004) – Used fMRI to show juggling increased grey matter.
#### 2. Outline/Describe Localization of Brain Function
- Definition: Specific brain regions control specific functions.
- Key Evidence:
- Hippocampus: Memory consolidation (Milner, HM case).
- Broca’s Area: Speech production (Broca, 1861).
- Milner (1957) – HM Case Study:
- Procedure: HM’s hippocampus removed to treat epilepsy.
- Findings: Could not form new LTM but retained STM and procedural memory.
- Conclusion: Hippocampus is critical for explicit memory formation.
#### 3. Outline/Describe Neuroplasticity
- Definition: The brain’s ability to reorganize structure/function in response to experience.
- Types:
- Synaptic Plasticity: Strengthening/weakening connections (e.g., long-term potentiation).
- Cortical Remapping: Brain areas adapt after injury (e.g., phantom limb studies).
- Draganski (2004) Study:
- Participants: 24 non-jugglers.
- Method: fMRI scans before/after 3 months of juggling training.
- Findings: Increased grey matter in visual/motor areas.
- Conclusion: Learning new skills physically changes the brain.
#### 4. Outline/Describe One Study Investigating Neuroplasticity
- Draganski (2004) (as above).
#### 5. Outline/Describe the Effect of One Neurotransmitter on Behavior
- Neurotransmitter: Acetylcholine (ACh) – Linked to memory, attention, and muscle activation.
- Antonova (2011) Study:
- Participants: 20 healthy adults.
- Method: Injected with scopolamine (blocks ACh receptors) or placebo, then played a virtual maze game.
- Findings: Scopolamine group had slower hippocampal activity and worse navigation.
- Conclusion: ACh is critical for spatial memory.
#### 6. Outline/Describe One Study Investigating Neurotransmitters
- Antonova (2011) (as above).
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### Key Takeaways for Full Marks
- Cognitive SAQs: Always link studies to theory (e.g., Loftus → reconstructive memory).
- Biological SAQs: Emphasize localization, techniques, and cause-effect relationships (e.g., HM → hippocampus = memory).
- Studies to Memorize:
- Cognitive: Loftus & Palmer (1974), Martin & Halverson (1983).
- Biological: Milner (HM), Draganski (2004), Antonova (2011).
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