POLS 271 International Politics Final

actor

an individual, group, state, or organization that plays a major role in world politics.

global politics

The politics of global social relations in which the pursuit of power, interests, order, and justice transcends regions and continents.

government

The people and agencies that have the power and legitimate authority to determine who gets what, when, where, and how within a given territory.

international relations

the field of international politics that concerns the interactions across national borders among states, other entities, organizations, and individuals on a wide range of security and non-security issues

levels of analysis

Analysts of global politics may examine factors at various levels—such as individual, domestic, systemic, and global—to explain actions and events. Each level provides possible explanations on a different scale. Individual: factors that affect leaders’ policy choices. Domestic: how the internal attributes of states influence their foreign policy behavior. Systemic: the impact of international structures and processes on the behavior of global actor. Global: effects of globalization that are not traceable to the actions of any one state, such as economic or health crises.

nation 

a group of people who feel a common identity due to a shared language, culture, and history. 

nation-state 

A political community in which the state claims legitimacy on the grounds that it represents all citizens, including those who may identify as a separate community or nation.

nonstate actor

Any participant in global politics that is neither acting in the name of government nor created and served by government. Nongovernmental organizations, terrorist networks, global crime syndicates, and multinational corporations are examples.

transnational actor

Any nongovernmental actor, such as a multinational corporation or a global religious humanitarian organization, that has dealings with any actor from another country or with an international organization.

state 

an organized political entity with a permanent population, a well-defined territory, and a government. 

arms race

As states build up their military to address real or perceived threats to their national security, they may create insecurity in other states. These states in turn develop their military capacities and thus begin an arms race. This never-ending pursuit of security creates the condition we know as a security dilemma.

balance of power

In the international system, a state of affairs in which there is parity and stability among competing forces, and no one state is sufficiently strong to dominate all the others.

bipolar 

An international political order in which two states dominate all others. It is often used to describe the nature of the international system when the two superpowers, the Soviet Union and the United States, were dominant powers during the Cold War.

Cold War

The period from 1946 to 1991 defined by ideological conflict and rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union. This was a global struggle for the hearts and minds of citizens around the world that was characterized by political conflict, military competition, proxy wars, and economic competition.

containment 

An American political strategy for resisting perceived Soviet expansion.

hegemon 

a single, overwhelmingly powerful state that exercises predominate influence over the global system. 

multipolar 

an international system with more than two dominant power centers. 

national self-determination

The right or desire of distinct national groups to become states and to rule themselves.

Peace of Westphalia (1648)

Ended the Thirty Years' War and was crucial in delimiting the political rights and authority of European monarchs.

sphere of influence

the area dominated by a great power.

Superpower

A state with a dominant position in the international system. It has the will and the means to influence the actions of other states in favor of its own interests, and it projects its power on a global scale to secure its national interests.

Thirty Years' War (1618–1648)

The last of the great wars in Europe fought nominally for religion.

Treaty of Versailles, 1919

Formally ended World War I (1914–1918).

Warsaw Pact

An agreement of mutual defense and military aid signed in 1955 comprised of the USSR and seven communist states. The pact was officially dissolved in July 1991.

anarchy

A system operating in the absence of any central government. It does not imply chaos but, in realist theory, the absence of political authority.

collective security 

a security regime based on the principle that an act of aggression by any state will be met by a collective response from the rest. 

constructivism

An approach to international politics that focuses on the impact of ideas.

feminism

A critical theory that examines the intersection of gender and global politics and advocates equal treatment for women.

liberalism

A theoretical approach that argues for human rights, parliamentary democracy, and free trade.

Marxism

A critical theory of capitalism from the perspective of the workers.

power

The capacity to do things and, in social and political situations, to affect others to get the outcome one wants. Sources of power include material or tangible resources and control over meaning or ideas.

realism

a theory of international politics that views the nation-state as the most important actor on the world stage since it answers to no higher political authority

security dilemma

In an anarchic international system, one with no common central power, when one state seeks to improve its security it creates insecurity in other states.

self-help

the principle that in anarchy actors must rely on themselves.

coercive diplomacy

The use of diplomatic and military methods that force a state to concede to another state. These methods may include the threat of force but exclude the actual use of force. The implication is that war is the next step if diplomacy fails.

diplomacy

The process by which international actors communicate as they seek to resolve conflicts without going to war and find solutions to complex global problems.

economic sanctions

A tool of statecraft that seeks to get a state to behave by coercion of a monetary kind—for example, freezing banking assets, cutting aid programs, or banning trade.

failed or fragile state

A state that fails to provide basic services and provide for their citizens. Such a state cannot protect its boundaries, provide a system of law and order, or maintain a functioning marketplace and means of exchange.

foreign policy

The articulation of national interests and the means chosen to secure those interests, both material and ideational, in the international arena.

great power

A state that has the political, economic, and military resources to shape the world beyond its borders. In most cases, such a state has the will and capacity to define the rules of the international system.

hard power v. soft power

(Hard) The material threats and inducements leaders employ to achieve the goals of their state.

(Soft) The influence and authority deriving from the attraction that a country's political, social, and economic ideas, beliefs, and practices have for people living in other countries.

ideal interests v. material interests

(Ideal) The psychological, moral, and ethical goals of a state as it sets foreign and domestic policy.

(Material) The physical goals of state officials as they set foreign and domestic policy.

levels of analysis in foreign policy

Many factors influence foreign policy. Most scholars suggest that the most important are individual, national, and systemic. Some also add global conditions.

modern state

A political unit within which citizens identify with the state and see the state as legitimate. This state has a monopoly over the use of force and is able to provide citizens with key services.

national interest

The material and ideational goals of a nation-state.

nationalism

The idea that the world is divided into nations that provide the overriding focus of political identity and loyalty. Nationalism also can refer to this idea in the form of a strong sense of identity or organizations and movements seeking to realize this idea.

national self-determination

The right or desire of distinct national groups to become states and to rule themselves.

bilateral 

relationships or agreements between two states. 

collective security

An arrangement where each state in the system accepts that the security of one is the concern of all, and agrees to join in a collective response to aggression

European Union

The union formally created in 1992 following the signing of the Maastricht Treaty. The origins of the European Union can be traced back to 1951 and the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community.

Global governance

The regulation and coordination of transnational issue areas by nation-states, international and regional organizations, and private agencies through the establishment of international regimes.

intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) 

institutions created and joined by states’ governments, which give them authority to make collective decisions to manage particular problem(s) on the global agenda. 

International organization

Any institution with formal procedures and formal membership from three or more countries.

League of Nations

The first permanent collective international security organization aimed at preventing future wars and resolving global problems.

multilateralism

The process by which states work together to solve a common problem.

multinational corporations (MNC) 

A business or firm with administration, production, distribution, and marketing located in countries around the world.

nongovernmental organization (NGO) 

An organization, usually a grassroots one, with policy goals but not governmental in makeup. An NGO is any group of people relating to each other regularly in some formal manner and engaging in collective action, provided the activities are noncommercial and nonviolent and are not on behalf of a government.

Peacekeeping

The interposition of third-party military personnel to keep warring parties apart.

Responsibility to protect

Resolution supported by the United Nations in 2005 to determine the international community's responsibility in preventing mass atrocities, reacting to crises, protecting citizens, rebuilding, and preventing future problems.

State sovereignty

The concept that all countries are equal under international law and that they are protected from outside interference; this is the basis on which the United Nations and other international and regional organizations operate.

Supranational organization

An authoritative international organization that operates above the nation-state.

United Nations

Founded in 1945 following World War II, it is an international organization composed of 193-member states dedicated to addressing issues related to peace and security, development, human rights, humanitarian affairs, and international law.

asymmetric warfare

armed conflict between belligerents of vastly unequal military strength, in which the weaker side is often a nonstate actor that relies on unconventional tactics, such as guerrilla warfare, roadside bombs, attacks on civilians, and other terrorist tactics.

civil war

armed conflict within a country between the central government and one or more insurgent groups, sometimes referred to as internal war.

democratic peace

the theory that although democratic states sometimes wage wars against other states, they do not fight each other.

internationalized civil war

an armed conflict between the central government of a country and insurgents with outside intervention by at least one other state in support of the insurgents.

interstate war

sustained armed conflict between two or more sovereign states.

military-industrial complex

The power and influence of the defense industries and their special relationship with the military. Both have tremendous influence over elected officials.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

Organization established by treaty in April 1949 including twelve (later sixteen) countries from Western Europe and North America. The most important aspect of the NATO alliance was the US commitment to the defense of Western Europe. Today NATO has twenty-eight member states.

nuclear deterrence

Explicit, credible threats to use nuclear weapons in retaliation to deter an adversary from attacking with nuclear weapons.

state-sponsored terrorism

formal assistance, training, and arming of foreign terrorists by a state in order to achieve foreign policy goals.

arms control

agreements to contain arms buildups by setting limits on the number and types of weapons that states are permitted.

mutual assured destruction (MAD) 

a system of deterrence in which both sides possess the ability to survive a first strike and launch a devastating retaliatory attack. 

Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) 

an international agreement that seeks to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons by prohibiting the further nuclear weapons sales, acquisitions, or production. 

proliferation 

the spread of weapon capabilities throughout the state system. 

revolution in military affairs (RMA)

The effect generated by the marriage of advanced communications and information processing with state-of-the-art weapons and delivery systems. It is a means of overcoming the uncertainty and confusion that are part of any battle in war.

second-strike capability 

a state’s capacity to retaliate after absorbing a firststrike attack with weapons of mass destruction. 

weapons of mass destruction (WMD)

A category defined by the United Nations in 1948 to include “atomic explosive weapons, radioactive material weapons, lethal chemical and biological weapons, and any weapons developed in the future which have characteristics comparable in destructive effects to those of the atomic bomb or other weapons mentioned above.”

Asian values

A critical view of Western values associated with the international human rights regime. Asian values emphasize collective rights, social harmony, family, religion, and respect for authority.

displaced people

People involuntarily uprooted from their homes but still living in their own countries. 

genocide

The deliberate extermination of an ethnic or minority group.

human development

The notion that it is possible to improve the lives of people. Includes improvements in health, education, access to resources, a decent standard of living, political freedom, and human rights, as reflected in the MDGs and SDGs.

human rights

The inalienable rights such as life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness that one is entitled to because one is human.

human security

The security of people, including their physical safety, their economic and social well-being, respect for their dignity, and the protection of their human rights.

humanitarian intervention

The use of military force by external actors to end a threat to people within a sovereign state.

natural law

The idea that humans have an essential nature, which dictates that certain kinds of human goods are always and everywhere desired.

nonintervention

The principle that external powers should not intervene in the domestic affairs of sovereign states.

refugees

People who flee for safety to another country because of a well-founded fear of persecution. Prior to the twentieth century, “refugee” as a legal category did not exist, and it was not until World War I that states recognized people as refugees and gave them rights.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The principal normative document on human rights, adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1948 and accepted as authoritative by most states and other international actors.

War crimes

Acts performed during war that the international community defines as illegal, such as atrocities committed against enemy civilians and prisoners of war.

Bretton Woods system

A system of economic and financial accords that created the IMF, the World Bank, and GATT/WTO following World War II. It is named after the hamlet in northern New Hampshire where leaders from forty-four countries met in 1944.

dollar standard

The use of the US dollar since 1947 as the key currency in the international monetary system.

exchange rate 

the rate at which one state’s currency is exchanged for another state’s currency in the global marketplace. 

free market

A market ruled by the forces of supply and demand, where all buying and selling is not constrained by government regulations or interventions.

globalization 

a set of processes that are widening, deepening, and accelerating the interconnectedness among societies. 

import quotas 

limits on the quantity of particular products that can be imported. 

international political economy 

the study of the intersection of politics and economics that illuminates the reasons why changes occur in the distribution of states’ wealth and power. 

New International Economic Order (NIEO) 

the 1974 policy resolution in the UN that called for a North–South dialogue to open the way for the less-developed countries of the Global South to participate more fully in the making of international economic policy. 

protectionism 

a policy of creating barriers to foreign trade, such as tariffs and quotas, that protect local industries from competition. 

tariff 

a tax imposed by governments on imported goods. 

trade liberalization

The removal or reduction of barriers to free trade such as tariffs or quotas on the trading of specific goods.

World Bank

A collection of five agencies, the first established in 1945, with head offices in Washington, D.C. The WB promotes development in medium- and low-income countries with project loans, structural-adjustment programs, and various advisory services.

World Trade Organization (WTO)

A permanent institution established in 1995 to replace the provisional GATT. It promotes stable international economic order and smooth international trade

development

In the orthodox view, top-down; reliance on “expert knowledge,” usually Western; large capital investments in large projects; advanced technology; expansion of the private sphere. In the alternative view, bottom-up; participatory; reliance on appropriate (often local) knowledge and technology; small investments in small-scale projects; protection of the commons.

dependent development 

the industrialization of areas outside of the leading capitalist states within confines set by the dominant capitalist states, which enables the poor to become wealthier without ever catching up to the core Global North countries. 

liberalization

Government policies that reduce the role of the state in the economy, such as the dismantling of trade tariffs and barriers, the deregulation and opening of the financial sector to foreign investors, and the privatization of state enterprises.

microfinance 

providing small loans to poor entrepreneurs, usually to help start or expand a small business. 

modernization theory

A theory that considers development synonymous with economic growth within the context of a free market international economy.

poverty

According to the United Nations, poverty is a denial of choices and opportunities, a violation of human dignity. It means lack of basic capacity provided by material possessions or money to participate effectively in society.

Washington Consensus

The belief of key opinion formers in Washington that global welfare would be maximized by the universal application of neoliberal economic policies that favor a minimalist state and an enhanced role for the market.

post–Washington Consensus

A modified version of the Washington Consensus promoting economic growth through trade liberalization coupled with pro-poor growth and poverty-reduction policies.

biodiversity 

the variety of life on earth. 

carrying capacity 

the maximum number of humans and living species that can be supported by a given territory

climate change

a change in the statistical distribution of weather over periods that range from decades to millions of years. It can be a change in the average weather or a change in the distribution of weather events.

desertification 

the creation of deserts due to soil erosion, over-farming, and deforestation, which converts cropland to nonproductive, arid sand. This condition is principally caused by overgrazing, over drafting of groundwater, and diversion of water from rivers for human consumption and industrial use; all of these processes are fundamentally driven by overpopulation.

ecological footprint

a measure that demonstrates the load placed on Earth's carrying capacity by individuals or nations. It does this by estimating the area of productive land and water system required to sustain a population at its specified standard of living.

ecosystem

a system of interdependent living organisms that share the same habitat, functioning together with all of the physical factors of the environment.

emissions trading

a system which provides that the rights to emit carbon can be bought and sold.

global commons

the areas and resources not under national sovereignty that belong to no single country and are the responsibility of the entire world. The oceans beyond the 200-mile limit, outer space, and Antarctica are global commons areas.

greenhouse effect 

the trapping of the sun's warmth in Earth's lower atmosphere due to gases that act like the glass of a greenhouse.

Montreal Protocol

a global environmental treaty passed in 1987 to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances, commonly used in refrigerators, air conditioners, fire extinguishers, and aerosols.

ozone layer 

the protective layer of the upper atmosphere over the earth’s surface that shields the planet from the sun’s harmful impact on living organisms on the planet. 

Paris Agreement

the first comprehensive global environmental treaty adopted in 2015 by 192 states and the European Union that aims at limiting the increase in global temperatures at no more than 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels; seeks to lower greenhouse gas emissions, address the negative consequences of climate change and divest the use of fossil fuels towards alternative energy sources.

sustainable development

Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

tragedy of the commons 

a metaphor, widely used to explain the impact of human behavior on ecological systems, that explains how rational self-interested behavior by individuals may have a destructive collective impact.