Consequences of the 1848-49 Revolutions & Path to German Unification (Topic 2 - German Unification)

Consequences of the 1848-49 Revolutions

  • The 1848-49 revolutions failed to establish a new unified Germany, with older rulers returning after military suppression.
  • Despite their failure, the revolutions had significant long-term consequences.

Summary of Events (1848-1850)

  • News of the French monarchy's overthrow in 1848 sparked unrest in Germany, particularly in southern states with a stronger liberal tradition.
  • Bavaria experienced unrest due to the unpopularity of its king.
  • Local revolts erupted across Germany, driven by various grievances.
  • Peasant unrest was widespread and included attacks on landowners and tax officials.
  • Some revolts were inspired by socialist ideals and a desire for a republic.
  • Many states called for increased powers for their assemblies.
  • In Austria, disturbances led to Metternich's fall and his exile to Britain in March.
  • In Prussia, the "March Days" involved demonstrations and the killing of over 200 demonstrators by troops.
  • Prussian King Frederick William IV yielded to pressure and accepted many demands.
  • Similar concessions were forced in other German states.
  • Delegates from German states met in late March to arrange a National Constitutional Assembly in Frankfurt, initiated by Heinrich von Gagern from Hesse-Darmstadt.
  • Divisions soon emerged among revolutionaries, and a conservative reaction developed.
  • The middle classes began to fear popular unrest.
  • Loyal troops restored the Emperor's power in Austria.
  • The Prussian king regained control and troops restored royal authority in October.
  • Tsar of Russia supported the restoration of Habsburg control in Eastern Europe.
  • Austria prevented a new German union, and the old German Confederation was restored by 1850.
  • Many liberals were exiled or imprisoned.
  • Revolutionaries like Marx were driven out of Germany.
  • The authority of landlords, factory owners, police, army, and traditional rulers was restored.

Initial Responses of German States to the 1848 Revolutions

  • The rapid pace of events in February and March 1848 led to the sudden collapse of resistance by the states.
  • Rulers, facing pressure from elected assemblies and middle-class officials, abandoned armed force to crush revolts.
  • The rulers were conscious of the fate of the French King Louis XVI, who was executed during the French Revolution.
  • Smaller South German states with a stronger liberal tradition were the first to make concessions.
  • On February 27, 1848, citizens in Baden demanded a bill of rights and greater powers for the assembly.
  • Similar meetings occurred in Württemberg, Hesse-Darmstadt, Nassau, and other states.
  • Strong popular support forced rulers to concede to the "March Demands."
  • Bavaria saw more resistance, with royal troops suppressing demands, but both conservatives and liberals opposed King Ludwig I due to his unpopular mistress, Lola Montez, leading to his abdication.
  • Previous liberal constitutions in the South and the unpopularity of the Bavarian King explain the initial response there.
  • In the North, changes also occurred without initial resistance.
  • King Frederick August II of Saxony accepted change peacefully.
  • The Saxon government resigned in March 1848 after demands for change.
  • Karl Braun introduced the abolition of censorship, reform of the franchise and judiciary, and regulation of associations, and required the army to swear an oath on the Constitution.
  • Violent clashes in Dresden did not occur until May 1849.
  • King Frederick William IV of Prussia distrusted military power and conservative advisors.
  • Initial concessions were made in Prussia as well.
  • The collapse of Metternich's control was crucial.
  • Smaller states lacked the resources to repress their populations, and when the Prussian monarch made concessions, others followed.
  • The Prussian king accepted the creation of a middle-class Civic Guard, the calling of a new assembly to create a constitution reducing the monarchy's power, and the acceptance of German nationalism.

Source J: Karl Schurz's Reminiscences (1907)

  • Describes the enthusiasm and support for the revolution in Bonn.
  • The fall of Prince Metternich sparked great news and the organization of students as an armed guard of liberty.
  • Cities sent deputations to Berlin to entreat the king.
  • A mass demonstration occurred in Bonn on March 18th with respectable citizens, professors, and students marching together.
  • People clapped, shouted, embraced, and shed tears, and the city was covered with black, red, and gold flags.

Source K: Berlin Cartoon of March 1848

  • Shows the Prussian King Frederick William IV, supported by the army, shutting out demands from middle-class subjects for a new constitution.
  • The quote on the Cartoon says: “No piece of paper shall stand between me and my people”

The Collapse of the Frankfurt Parliament

  • The idea of a Constituent Assembly (Vorparlament) was radical but had little chance of success.
  • Its 800 members met in Frankfurt in May 1848 but failed to create a new German state by May 1849.

Source L: Painting of the Frankfurt Parliament (1848)

Reasons for the Failure of the Frankfurt Parliament

Unrepresentative Body
  • The assembly was composed predominantly of educated middle-class professionals, with limited representation from manufacturing, trading interests, landed proprietors, and peasants.
  • Over 70% of Germans were not bourgeois urban dwellers.
  • Assembly members spent time on detailed legalistic discussions and produced a draft constitution for Germany and a bill of rights only by October.
  • By this time, the revolution had lost impetus and become divided.
Divisions
  • There was no agreement on what the new German state would be.
  • Some advocated a greater Germany (Grossdeutschland) including Austria and parts of its empire but not Hungary.
  • The Catholic South had more in common with Austria than the Protestant North.
  • The alternative was a smaller Germany (Kleindeutschland) excluding Austria, which would mean Prussian dominance.
  • Prussia's lands made up two-thirds of a reduced Germany, and it was not universally trusted or admired.
  • By October, the Kleindeutsch solution was accepted, but a reaction against change had set in.
Limited Appeal
  • The assembly offered little for the mass of Germans, especially the peasants, and lacked popular support.
  • Middle-class delegates supported property rights.
  • The abolition of feudal dues was tied to compensation to the owners.
  • Demands for state intervention to protect workers or protective tariffs were not accepted.
Overreliance on Prussia and its Army
  • The assembly relied on Prussian military power in a dispute with Denmark over Schleswig and Holstein.
  • The Danish king wanted to incorporate these provinces into Denmark.
  • The German Confederation opposed this but relied on the Prussian army.
  • The assembly had been part of a wave of enthusiasm in March and April 1848.
  • Divisions between middle-class moderates and those wanting more decisive social and political changes increased over the summer.
  • The loss of impetus allowed conservative elements to become stronger and advocate ending the revolutions by force.
  • Monarchs retained the loyalty of their armed forces.
  • In October, there was a reaction in Prussia, with troops occupying the capital.
  • The new assembly in Prussia was dissolved.
  • In Saxony, the reform cabinet was dismissed in 1849, leading to fighting in Dresden between revolutionaries and the armed forces, ending the revolution.
  • The Habsburg monarch reasserted control over Germanic lands in Austria, Hungary, Poland, and Slav territories using military force supported by the Tsar of Russia.
  • The revolutionaries were not determined or united enough to resist these changes.
  • The crucial turning point was King Frederick William IV of Prussia's refusal in March 1849 to accept the position of emperor of a new united Germany, famously saying he would not accept 'a crown from the gutter'.
  • Prussian military power was inadequate to deal with a challenge from Austria.
  • Conservative pressure led him to prioritize the interests of the Prussian monarchy.

The Failure of the Frankfurt Assembly (Continued)

  • Faced with a more powerful Austria, increasing divisions, violence in Dresden, and limited agreement on major policy issues, the Frankfurt Assembly weakened.
  • It announced a new constitution in March 1849, but it was never implemented.
  • The assembly dissolved itself in May.
  • Radical members continued in Stuttgart until June when troops dissolved it and suppressed resistance in Baden.

Source M: Johann Gustav Droysen's Speech to the Frankfurt Assembly (1848)

  • Presents a liberal supporter of unification's view.
  • Argues that the German question is a simple choice between Prussia and Austria.
  • Sees Prussia as representing national and reformative interests, while Austria represents dynastic and destructive interests.
  • The German question is a question of power, not constitution.
  • Believes Prussia desires German unity to supply its own deficiencies.
  • Prussia is already Germany in embryo and will merge with Germany.

Source N: Frederick William IV's Proclamation (1849)

  • Presents the King of Prussia's view.
  • He cannot accept the crown offered by the German National Assembly because the Assembly lacks the right to bestow the crown without the consent of German governments.
  • Additionally, the crown was offered with the condition that he would accept a constitution irreconcilable with the rights of the German states.

The Importance of the Reassertion of Austrian Power and the Humiliation of Olmütz

  • Developments in the Austrian Empire held the key to events in Germany.
  • The overthrow of Metternich led to the monarchy making concessions.
  • The Emperor reportedly said 'tell the people I agree to everything'.
  • Faced with revolutions in Italy, Hungary, and unrest in German and Slav lands, the scale of unrest was overwhelming.
  • A radical constitution was accepted, and a Constituent Assembly was called.
  • Unrest forced the Emperor to leave Vienna in May 1848.
The Recovery of Austria
  • By summer, there were indications of recovery.
  • Risings in Italy were put down, and Austria defeated nationalist forces at the battle of Custoza.
  • The Constituent Assembly in Vienna was divided and ineffective.
  • There was little agreement between German speakers and other nationalities, such as the Czechs.
  • Imperial forces crushed an attempt to create an independent Czech state in June.
  • Hungary's breakaway found little support among German revolutionaries.
  • Radical unrest in Vienna was crushed by the Austrian army in October 1848.
  • Moderates were divided from radicals by a new constitution offered in March 1849.
  • In Hungary, Austrian forces, aided by Russian troops, defeated an independence movement, with a final victory at Vilgos in August 1849.
  • Emperor Francis abdicated and was replaced by Crown Prince Franz Josef.
  • Conservative forces, especially the army, restored Habsburg power.
  • Crucially, Russia, under Tsar Nicholas I, supported Austria.
The Return of Austrian Domination
  • By the summer of 1849, Austria was strong enough to resume its domination of Germany.
  • Austria had strong and victorious armies that had defeated nationalism in the Czech lands, Poland, Hungary, and Italy.
  • It had military support from Russia and its powerful army and reactionary ruler.
  • It faced a divided Germany whose main attempt at creating a rival German state had failed.
  • Its only possible rival was Prussia, but Prussian armed forces were not strong enough to resist Austrian pressure.
  • Prussian conservatives would not have supported any conflict with Austria, and the Prussian king was not a dominant figure.
  • The result was a national humiliation for Prussia.
  • In the aftermath of the revolutions, Prussia tried to gain nationalist and liberal support.
  • In April 1849, a Prussian constitution was created.
  • Absolute rule was not imposed, but the new constitution favored the conservative landed classes.
  • The lower house of parliament was elected by a three-tier system that gave landowners and the richer middle classes more influence.
  • A third of the representatives were elected by the wealthiest 5%.
  • The parliament had limited power.
  • The royal government was not responsible to parliament, and there was an upper house of nobles whose consent was also necessary for any laws.
  • Some in Prussia wanted to ensure that Prussian conservative interests would be dominant in any new association of German states.
  • General von Radowitz aimed to link the hopes of the German middle classes more to the Prussian state by a union with Saxony and Hanover.
  • This would be different from the proposed Kleindeutsch policy of the Frankfurt Parliament, as the states were dominated by political conservatives and monarchists.
  • It would share the conservative three-tier franchise of Prussia rather than the more democratic constitution of the Frankfurt Assembly.
  • Some 150 former Frankfurt deputies agreed to it at a meeting at Gotha.
  • Under pressure from Prussia, some 28 states joined the Erfurt Union by the end of August 1849.
  • During negotiations, Austria was preoccupied with suppressing Hungarian independence.
  • However, it opposed the Union.
  • The Austrian government pressured Saxony and Hanover to leave the Union and supported conservative opposition in Prussia.
  • The conservative constitution of the Union was opposed by democrats in Germany, and the princes ceased to support it.
  • A conference of German princes voted to delay establishing a constitution for the Union.
  • Austria re-established the old Confederation (Bund) under its leadership.
  • Relations between Prussia and Austria worsened to the point of a likely war.
  • Russia backed Austria in opposing the Union.
  • Conservative groups in Prussia swayed the King towards abandoning the Union.
  • At a conference at Olmütz on November 29, Prussia announced it had demobilized its forces and accepted the restoration of the Bund, ending the Erfurt Union.
  • The hopes of the Frankfurt nationalists for a Prussian-led independent Germany were ended.
  • Prussia could not oppose Austria due to the more powerful Austrian forces and Russian support.
  • The climbdown became known as 'the Humiliation of Olmütz'.
Conclusions by 1850
  • German nationalism by itself would not create a new Germany.
  • A new German state would emerge only if Austrian power could be defeated or overcome.
  • Conservatives in Prussia would not support a new state associated with liberal ideas.
  • Russian influence would be an obstacle to a new German state.
  • Prussia was powerful enough to impose economic leadership but could not risk conflict with Austria, especially with Russian backing.
  • Despite the defeats of 1848-49, there was still a desire for a more unified Germany among the German middle class.
  • Prussia remained the most likely state to bring about greater unification.

The Importance of Economic Developments After 1849 and the Zollverein

  • Between 1850 and 1871, significant economic and social developments occurred in Germany.
  • The tensions of the 1840s gave way to what has been called "the quiet years", but this was true politically and not economically.
  • The ending of restrictions from traditional trade guilds in Prussia led to the growth of free enterprise.
  • Setting up factories became easier, and by 1860, there were 2000 industrial enterprises employing more than 50 workers.
  • Feudal obligations and serfdom were ended, with 640,000 Prussian peasants becoming free from control and able to farm independently.
  • This increased food supply and gave industry a much-extended internal market.
  • German industry and trade benefited from a general European prosperity in the 1850s and internal free trade of the Zollverein.
  • Internal trade in Germany doubled between 1850 and 1857.
  • Railways doubled in the 1850s from 5800 km to 11,300 km.
Economic Statistics Show Rapid Growth
  • Steam engine capacity went from 260,000 units of horsepower to 850,000.
  • Pig iron production increased from 229,000 to 529,000 tons.
  • Cotton production increased from 900,000 spindles to 2.2 million.
  • Textiles were the key driving force behind industrial growth.
  • The shift from small-scale workshop production to mass production based on steam power was seen in larger states like Austria and Prussia and in the South in Baden, Württemberg, and Bavaria.
  • This generated demand for increased coal production.
  • Technical change encouraged the growth of pig iron smelted by coke.
  • Using coke instead of charcoal increased the scale of production and the quality of the iron.
  • The demand for more machinery and technical improvements encouraged a growth in engineering.
  • Precision tools developed, enabling the mass production of interchangeable parts.
  • This led to greater engineering knowledge and education and growth in skilled workers.
By the 1860s, Germany's Economy Had Developed Key Elements for Economic Growth

  • a supply of labour because of ongoing population growth

  • free internal trade

  • improving transport – railways, better roads and steamships as well as canals and navigable rivers

  • governments sympathetic to free enterprise

  • technical skills

  • raw materials

  • a stronger internal market with a free peasantry.

  • The German financial sector grew with banks willing to lend money and support enterprises.

  • There was also an increase in paper money – there was 50 times more paper money in circulation by 1860 than there had been in the 1840s. This helped consumer industries and facilitated trade.

  • Economic growth encouraged national unity.

Economic Growth and Its Effect on Society
  • Easier transport, the movement of workers, and greater interchange of products broke down regional barriers.
  • The growth of interest in nationalism was shown by the membership of the National Society and various specialist all-German associations.
  • Regional divisions were breaking down.
  • Economic change also had a considerable effect on German society.
  • There was the growth of a distinct class of industrial workers (the proletariat) that Marx identified.
  • This doubled between 1848 and the 1860s to a million.
  • Whole towns or urban districts had become 'working-class' areas.
  • They had interests in common that crossed state boundaries.
  • However, there were 2.2 million independent craftsmen and shop owners in the 1860s, and the majority of Germany remained rural.
Role of the Zollverein
  • Many saw that economic developments might eventually produce a united Germany.
  • By 1860, this was seen as most likely to be Kleindeutsch because it would emerge from the Zollverein, which continued to exclude Austria.
  • Much has been claimed for the Zollverein as a cause of later unification.
Objections to the Zollverein Argument

  • The Zollverein was one element in bringing about growth but was not the only element.

  • It had been in existence since the 1830s, but rapid industrialization occurred only in the 1850s and 1860s.

  • Austria was outside the Zollverein and still experienced economic growth.

  • Austrian textile production more than doubled in the 1850s.

  • Its rail network expanded from 1620 km to 5400 km.

  • Its imports doubled, and its exports tripled.

  • Steam power tripled, and iron production doubled.

  • There was no certainty that the members of the Zollverein would support a political union when Prussia was so dominant.

  • This was vividly shown in 1866 when Prussia went to war with Austria, and the Zollverein states sided with Austria.

  • The Zollverein helped to build Prussian economic power and influence, but it was by no means certain that it would develop into anything more than an economic union.

Source O: Liberal Newspaper in 1857

  • Writes about the links between the economic and political development
  • There is an intimate connection, in Germany, between the national economic development and the need for national political development.
  • The commerce and transportation of a country demand one code of law, one national legislation, one defense policy to protect trade. These needs have been satisfied in other countries, but not within Germany.
  • A common code of law, common legislation for the whole of the country, remains a pious wish, unlikely to happen, and our traders are defenseless abroad.

Summary Diagram: Consequences of the 1848-49 Revolutions

Long-Term Factors
  • Monarchical states needing to compromise/modernize
  • Economic developments and Prussian recovery
  • Austrian economic and financial problems
  • Austro-Prussian rivalry
Short-Term Factors
  • Failure of Frankfurt Parliament
  • Feudalism removed
  • Parliamentary Government in Prussia
  • Revolutions crushed
  • Overthrow of Metternich
  • Austrian recovery
  • Capitulation of Olmütz 1850