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Millions of Immigrants Arrive
In the mid-1800s, large numbers of immigrants crossed the Atlantic Ocean to begin new lives in the United States. More than 4 million of them settled in the United States between 1840 and 1860,
most from Europe.
More than 3 million of these immigrants arrived
from Ireland and Germany. Many of them were fleeing economic
or political troubles in their native countries.
Fleeing the Irish Potato Famine
Most immigrants from the British Isles during that period were
Irish. In the mid-1840s, potato blight, a disease that causes rot in
potatoes, left many families in Ireland with little food. More than a
million Irish people died of starvation and disease. Even more, fled
to the United States.
Most Irish immigrants were very poor. Many settled in cities
in Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania. They
worked at unskilled jobs in the cities or building canals and railroads.
Irish women often worked as domestic servants for wealthy families, laboring 16
or more hours per day. In 1849 a Boston
health committee reported that low wages
forced most Irish immigrants to live in poor
housing.
Still, many immigrants enjoyed a new
feeling of equality. Patrick Dunny wrote
home to his family about this situation.
“People that cut a great dash \[style\] at home . . .
think it strange \[in the United States\] for the
humble class of people to get as much respect
as themselves.”
—Patrick Dunny, quoted in Who Built America?
by Bruce Levine et al.
A Failed German Revolution
Many Germans also came to the United States
during this time. In the early 1800s, many
Germans went to the United States to escape
religious persecution. Then in 1848 some
Germans staged a revolution against harsh rule.
Some educated Germans fled to the
United States to escape persecution caused by
their political activities. Most German immigrants, however, were working class, and they
came for economic reasons. The United States
seemed to offer more excellent economic opportunities and freedom from government
control.
While most Irish immigrants were
Catholics, German immigrant groups included Catholics, Jews, and Protestants.
German immigrants were more likely
then the Irish became farmers and live in
rural areas.
They moved to midwestern states
where more land suited to agriculture was
available. Unlike the Irish, a high percentage
of German immigrants arrived in the United
States with money. Despite their funds and
skills,
German immigrants often were forced
to take low-paying jobs. Many German
immigrants worked as tailors, seamstresses,
bricklayers, servants, clerks, cabinetmakers,
bakers, and food merchants.
Anti-Immigration Movements
Industrialization and the waves of people
from Europe greatly changed the American
labor force. While many immigrants went
to the Midwest to get farmland, other immigrants filled the need for cheap labor in towns
and cities. Industrial jobs in the Northeast
attracted many people.
Yet a great deal of native-born Americans feared losing their jobs to immigrants
who might work for lower wages. Some felt
implicitly threatened by the new immigrants’ cultures and religions. For example, before Catholic immigrants arrived,
most Americans were Protestants. Conflicts between Catholics and Protestants in
Europe caused American Protestants to mistrust Catholic immigrants. Those Americans
and others who opposed immigration were
called nativists.
In the 1840s and 1850s, some nativists
became politically active. An 1844 election
flyer gave Americans this warning.
“Look at the . . . thieves and vagabonds \[tramps\]
roaming our streets . . . monopolizing \[taking\]
the business which properly belongs to our
own native and true-born citizens. ”
—Election flyer, quoted in Who Built America?
by Bruce Levine et al.
In 1849 nativists founded a political
organization, the Know-Nothing Party, that
supported measures making it difficult for
foreigners to become citizens or hold office.
Its members wanted to keep Catholics and
immigrants out of public office. They also
wanted to require immigrants to live in the
United States for 21 years before becoming
citizens. Know-Nothing politicians had some
success getting elected during the 1850s.
Later, disagreements over the issue of slavery
caused the party to fall apart. As the immigrants assimilated to life in the United States,
nativist complaints became less common.
Rapid Growth of Cities
The Industrial Revolution led to the creation of many new jobs in American cities.
These city jobs drew immigrants from many
nations as well as migrants from rural parts
of the United States. The Transportation Revolution helped connect cities and made it
easier for people to move to them. As a result
of these two trends, American cities grew
rapidly during the mid-1800s. Cities in the
northeastern and Middle Atlantic states grew
the most. By the mid-1800s, three-quarters
of the country’s manufacturing jobs were in
these areas.
The rise of industry and the growth of
cities changed American life. Those who
owned their businesses or worked
in skilled jobs benefited most from those
changes. The families of these merchants,
manufacturers, professionals, and master
craftspeople made up a growing social class.
This new middle class was a social and
economic level between the wealthy and the
poor. Those in the new middle class built
large, dignified homes that demonstrated
their place in society.
In the growing cities, people found
entertainment and enriched cultural life.
Many enjoyed visiting places such as libraries and clubs or attending concerts or lectures. In the mid-1800s people also attended
urban theaters. My favorite pastimes included
bowling, boxing, and playing cards. The
rules of baseball were formalized in 1845,
and the game became increasingly popular.
Cities during this time were compact
and crowded. Many people lived close
enough to their jobs that they could walk
to work. Wagons carried goods down streets
paved with stones, making a noisy, busy
scene. One observer noted that the professionals in New York City always had a “hurried walk.”
Many city residents,
particularly immigrants,
lived in crowded, unNew York City, safe conditions.
Many immigrants and
other poor city dwellers
worked long hours in factories at dangerous jobs.
Women—and frequently
children—labored all day
in small rooms making
clothing to be sold to
the wealthy.
City streets were
crowded with people
buying, selling, and
transporting goods.
The first floor of the building
served many purposes—
living quarters, kitchen, and
workspace. Here, garments
were finished for sale.
Urban Problems
American cities in the mid-1800s faced many
challenges due to rapid growth. Because public
and the private transportation was limited, city
residents had to live near their workplaces.
In addition, there was a lack of safe housing.
Many city dwellers, particularly immigrants,
could afford to live only in tenements—poorly
designed apartment buildings that housed
large numbers of people. These structures
were often dirty, overcrowded, and unsafe.
Public services were also poor. The majority of cities did not have clean water, public
health regulations, or healthful ways to get
rid of the garbage and human and animal waste.
Under these conditions, diseases spread easily,
and epidemics were common. In 1832 and
1849, for example, New York City suffered
cholera epidemics that killed thousands.
City life held other dangers. As urban areas
grew, they became centers of criminal activity. Most cities—including New York, Boston,
and Philadelphia—had no permanent or organized force to fight crime. Instead, they relied
on volunteer night watches, which offered little protection. Some of the violence was often
between various ethnic or racial groups,
who had different economic and social goals.
Immigrants often came from a mix of social
classes, which also led to conflict among
groups. Differences in political goals and opinions also led to disagreements between groups.
The fire was another constant and serious
danger in crowded cities. There was little
organized fire protection. Most cities were
served by volunteer fire companies. Firefighters used hand pumps and buckets to put out
fires. In addition, there were not enough sanitation workers and road maintenance crews.
These shortages and flaws caused health and
safety problems for many city residents.

In summary, Immigrants
expected a better life in America, but
not all Americans welcomed newcomers.
The rapid growth of cities caused many
problems. In the next section, you will
read about how America developed its
style of art and literature.