Study Guide: Period 4: 1800-1848
Unit 4: Period 4: 1800–1848
4.1 The “Revolution of 1800”
General
By 1800, the Federalist Party faced internal divisions, which facilitated the rise of the Democratic-Republicans to the presidency.
The main contenders for the Democratic-Republican party nomination were Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr.
Election Results
Both candidates received the same number of votes in the Electoral College.
Consequently, the Federalist-controlled House of Representatives had to select the president from among them.
After 35 ballots, Thomas Jefferson won the presidency.
Alexander Hamilton, despite personal animosity towards Jefferson, endorsed him over Burr, whom Hamilton deemed “a most unfit and dangerous man”.
Burr later proved Hamilton correct by fatally shooting him in a duel.
Noteworthy Reasons
Two significant points make this election remarkable:
Jefferson was again faced with a vice president he did not support.
The peaceful transfer of power from Federalists to Democratic-Republicans marked a democratic milestone without violence.
Change-over
Jefferson termed his victory and the resultant change as “the bloodless revolution.”
This issue of the president not wanting his vice president was addressed with the passage of the Twelfth Amendment in 1804, allowing electors to vote along party lines for a ticket.
The Jeffersonian Republic (1800–1823)
General
Although the transition was devoid of bloodshed, the shift in power was not met with friendliness.
John Adams, upset with the election results, left the capital before Jefferson's inauguration to bypass the ceremony.
Midnight Appointments
Just prior to leaving office, Adams made several last-minute appointments, filling numerous governmental positions with Federalists.
Jefferson's response was to refuse to acknowledge these appointments, embarking on a campaign to replace Federalist appointees.
He successfully dismissed some appointees, pressured others into retirement, and allowed certain individuals to await natural expiration of their terms.
By Jefferson’s second term, most public offices were filled with Democratic-Republicans.
Marbury v. Madison
Jefferson's refusal to recognize Adams's midnight appointments led to several lawsuits, with one notably reaching the Supreme Court in 1803: Marbury v. Madison.
William Marbury, a last-minute appointee, sued Secretary of State James Madison for not certifying his appointment to the federal bench.
Chief Justice John Marshall, sympathizing with Marbury but uncertain about the court's authority, ruled that while Marbury had a right to the judgeship, the Supreme Court could not enforce this right.
The case established the principle of judicial review, asserting that the Judiciary Act of 1789 gave excessive power to the Judicial Branch, which was deemed unconstitutional.
Judicial Review
The case reinforced the Supreme Court's role in ensuring the constitutionality of legislative acts.
Marshall’s decision favored Jefferson and simultaneously reinforced the significance of the Supreme Court.
Louisiana Purchase
Jefferson's largest achievement during his first term was the Louisiana Purchase.
Following Spain's transfer of New Orleans to France in 1802, the U.S. recognized a potential threat under French control of this strategic location on the Mississippi River.
Dilemma
Jefferson faced a constitutional dilemma: while he previously advocated for a strict interpretation of the Constitution, it did not expressly permit the president to purchase land.
Initially considering the need for a constitutional amendment to authorize land purchases, Jefferson eventually leveraged his power to negotiate foreign treaties as justification for the acquisition.
Response to Purchase
Jefferson's unilateral decision to acquire Louisiana without Congressional approval faced backlash.
New England Federalists opposed it, fearing the resultant increase in populous, Democratic states would diminish their power, leading them to contemplate secession as the Essex Junto.
A faction of Republicans, calling themselves the Quids, denounced Jefferson's actions as contrary to Republican principles.
Lewis and Clark Expedition
Jefferson commissioned the Lewis and Clark Expedition to explore western territories, particularly the newly acquired Louisiana territory.
Sacajawea served as the Shoshoni guide, aiding interactions with Native tribes along the Missouri River.
The expedition returned with favorable reports, spurring increased westward migration by pioneers seeking land and opportunity.
Reports also highlighted the presence of foreign forts still maintaining garrisons due to lingering geopolitical tensions.
Election of 1804
Jefferson won re-election in a significant landslide.
Aaron Burr's bid for the New York governorship led to a contest with Hamilton, who campaigned against Burr.
Following Burr's loss, he challenged Hamilton to a duel, resulting in Hamilton's death.
Burr subsequently fled to the Southwest in pursuit of initiating a new nation but was later apprehended and tried for treason, ultimately acquitted.
Jefferson’s Second Term
The growing discord between Britain and France contributed to unrest, eventually leading to the War of 1812.
British and French blockades severely disrupted American trade, leading to the impressment of American sailors by the British.
Response to Tensions
Jefferson faced the dilemma of engaging in military action versus economic retalliation.
He responded by promoting a boycott and enhancing military appropriations.
Embargo Act of 1807
This act halted both American imports and exports, leading to disastrous economic consequences, primarily affecting New England.
The embargo resulted in widespread smuggling and a significant decrease in Democratic-Republican Congressional seats during elections.
Non-Intercourse Act of 1809
This act restored trade relations with most nations, while explicitly prohibiting commerce with Britain and France.
Jefferson, amidst these circumstances, opted not to pursue a third presidential term and endorsed James Madison to succeed him.
4.2 Madison’s Presidency and the War of 1812
Macon's Bill No. 2
The bill reopened trade with both France and Britain, stipulating that if either country harbored hostilities towards American commerce, the other would be restricted from trade as a consequence.
Napoleon engaged in agreements to cease interference, thus imposing an embargo against Britain, but failed to follow through, escalating tensions.
The British escalated attacks on American shipping, prompting calls for war among certain American factions.
Pro-War Sentiments
Southern and Western war hawks perceived conflict as an avenue to annex new territories, specifically Canada from the British.
Key figures included Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun, who fervently advocated for war.
Madison and the Declaration of War
Madison, after initially managing the situation, eventually asked Congress to declare war in 1812, which marked the opening of the War of 1812.
The War of 1812
Native American tribes aligned with the British, with Tecumseh uniting various tribes to confront American encroachment.
U.S. military forces faced significant challenges, leading to the British capturing Washington, D.C., and igniting the White House.
Battles throughout the duration were often indecisive, culminating in the signing of the Treaty of Ghent, which effectively ended the war.
Battle of New Orleans
This battle featured a decisive American victory, enhancing nationalistic sentiment following the war.
Federalists discontented with the war convened at the Hartford Convention to discuss grievances and strategies.
Post-War Growth
Despite challenges, the war ignited a manufacturing boom and increased self-reliance within the American economy.
4.3 The Election of 1824 and John Quincy Adams’s Presidency
Election of 1824
Before 1824, electors were selected by state legislatures or congressional caucuses; however, by this period, states increasingly allowed direct voter participation in choosing electors.
The Democratic-Republican caucus nominated William H. Crawford, inciting opposition that would ultimately dismantle the caucus system.
Andrew Jackson captured both the popular and electoral vote plurality but fell short of a majority.
The election was ultimately decided in the House of Representatives, where Speaker of the House Henry Clay supported Adams.
Corrupt Bargain
Adams appointed Clay to the position of Secretary of State, igniting allegations of a corrupt bargain between the two.
Both Adams and Clay anticipated transitioning out of the political landscape during the 1828 election, which drew upon stark rivalries from this electoral cycle.
Constitutional Provision
The Constitution stipulates that if no majority arises from the Electoral College, the top three electoral contenders are forwarded to the House for decision.
The Jackson Presidency and Jacksonian Democracy
General Overview
Andrew Jackson’s presidency marked a significant phase in American history, with the campaign for the presidency in 1824 characterized by mutual disparagement among rivals.
His electoral success in 1828 established him as the first president not originating from Virginia or the Adams lineage and transformed the political scene into the modern Democratic Party.
Jackson’s Policies
Jackson’s administration pursued a policy of replacing erstwhile officials with political allies, birthing criticisms of cronyism and spawning the spoils system—a practice wherein appointments were exchanged for political support.
The era is known for its embrace of Jacksonian democracy, emphasizing universal white manhood suffrage and a robust presidential authority.
Jackson leveraged his popularity to directly engage Congress and the Supreme Court, a departure from previous presidential conduct.
However, Jacksonian democracy lacked a cohesive vision for governance and did not match Jefferson in his philosophical depth.
Indian Removal
Jackson’s controversial Indian Removal Act of 1830 targeted the Cherokee and other “Five Civilized Tribes” by framing Native Americans as “foreign nations” which perpetuated dislocation and cultural erosion.
As prospectors discovered gold on Cherokee lands, pressures mounted for removal, culminating in the trail of tears—forced relocation to Oklahoma—with thousands suffering and dying en route.
Nullification Doctrine
The concept of state nullification emerged, whereby states believed they held the authority to disregard federal laws deemed unconstitutional.
The Tariff of 1828, termed the Tariff of Abominations by detractors, incited significant contention throughout Jackson’s tenure.
Economic Policies
Jackson’s philosophies entailed downsizing the federal government while enhancing presidential power and demonstrating aggression in his vetoing of the Second Bank of the United States (BUS).
Jackson categorized the BUS as an unconstitutional monopoly favoring eastern interests.
His insistence on hard currency resulted in the Specie Circular, eventually leading to a financial crisis (Panic of 1837) due to rampant money shortages and governmental inefficiencies.
Slavery Controversy
Slavery became an escalating concern throughout Jacksonian democracy, marked by increased abolitionist sentiments and slave insurrections, notably Nat Turner’s Rebellion prompting severe reprisals against enslaved individuals, known as slave codes.
4.4 The Election of 1836 and the Rise of the Whigs
Political Party Dynamics
Jackson’s Democratic Party struggled to represent the broad spectrum of Americans, which led to the formation of the Whig Party—a coalition against Democratic policies.
Whigs were united by their opposition to the Democratic Party rather than a singular ideological stance, advocating activism in social issues.
Election of 1836
Van Buren, initially endorsed as vice president by Jackson, ascended to the presidency amidst economic turmoil, marked by Panic of 1837.
His administration's hard currency stance exacerbated economic strife, impairing his ability to secure re-election.
William Henry Harrison and John Tyler
Harrison was elected president in 1841 but succumbed shortly thereafter, with Tyler assuming the presidency.
Tyler, originally aligned with Democratic principles, alienated Whig leadership by rejecting numerous party bills, exemplifying his tenure as “a president without a party.”
Economic History (1800–1860)
Economic Developments
Economic changes significantly influenced political developments leading to the Civil War and contributed to regional variances in American society.
Market Economy Formation
Prior to the Revolutionary War, settlers primarily engaged in subsistence farming, lacking cash transactions.
The transition to a market economy encouraged specialization but also risks overproduction and market reliance.
War of 1812’s Impact
The War of 1812 necessitated U.S. self-sufficiency and propelled the development of a national economy, promoting manufacturing independence.
Cotton Production Advances
The invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793 transformed Southern agriculture, enhancing cotton production and reliance on enslaved labor.
Whitney further developed interchangeable parts, streamlining mass production efficiency.
Industrial Expansion in the North
The North’s textile industry propelled by technological innovations and shifts during the War of 1812 laid the groundwork for a burgeoning market economy.
Transportation Expansion
The construction of the National Road and Erie Canal in 1825 facilitated enhanced trade and mobility across the U.S.
Railroads emerged as the prominent means of transportation by 1850, overtaking canals, while advancements in communication (e.g., telegraph) contributed to faster communication across distances.
4.5 Westward Expansion
Motivation for Settlement
The Louisiana Purchase eliminated major barriers to Western expansion, with the War of 1812 further disabling Native American movements aligned with British interests.
Manifest Destiny underpinned the American belief in its divine right to expand across North America.
Texas Settlements
Mexico’s 1821 independence from Spain fostered liberal land policies, prompting a massive influx of American settlers who often failed to assimilate.
Tensions led to rebellion and the establishment of the Republic of Texas, which delayed statehood (admitted in 1845) due to slavery debates.
Oregon Territory Migration
The Oregon Trail facilitated settlement in the Willamette Valley during the 1840s, where tensions arose between American settlers, Native inhabitants, and British claims.
The later discovery of gold in California initiated a massive migration rush, with approximately 100,000 individuals relocating within two years.
Regional Economic Diversification
The distinct characteristics of the North, South, and West emerged from differing economic interests:
The North evolved into an industrialized center, while the agrarian South primarily focused on cotton and tobacco cultivation.
The West's economy was shaped by farming, trapping, and speculation, reflecting a divergence from the other regions.
4.6 Social History, 1800-1860
Social Changes
The economic growth and shifts in the early 19th century spurred significant social changes:
The advent of the Industrial Revolution transformed agriculture and intensified reliance on slavery.
Urbanization yielded larger middle classes yet facilitated the emergence of impoverished neighborhoods.
North’s Urbanization
The North became a hub of industrial advancement, facing challenges in governance and sanitation, affected by rapid urban growth.
Cities provided economic opportunities but were also breeding grounds for disparities in wealth, crime, and exposure to epidemics.
Southern Social Structure
Southern society revolved around plantation wealth, with plantations forming an aristocracy supported by an ever-present reliance on slavery.
The majority lived in subsistence poverty, contrasting with the glamorous life of plantation owners.
The West and Frontier Life
The changing nature of frontier boundaries created a dynamic culture, where farming and fur trading became prominent pursuits.
Life on the frontier was marked by both triumph over adversities and the pursuit of opportunity, symbolizing freedom and aspiration.
Reform Movements
The Second Great Awakening catalyzed numerous social reform movements, especially among women, who played critical roles in advocating for various causes, including abolition and women’s rights.
The abolitionist movement gained significantly from a moral perspective during this revitalization period, with figures such as Horace Mann championing public education reforms.
Despite the rise of abolitionism, it was ultimately met with strong opposition until the eve of the Civil War.