American Exceptionalism, Progressive Era Reforms, and the Rise of Modern Presidents

American Exceptionalism and the Progressive Era

• Driven by American exceptionalism ('can do' attitude), America transitioned from the Gilded Age to the Progressive Era (late $19^{th}$ and early $20^{th}$ centuries).

• Characterized by optimism and pragmatism, fostering technological innovations (telephone, light bulb, car) and social reform.

Racial Inequality and Disenfranchisement

• White control was deeply entrenched in the South, limiting Black political participation.

• Disenfranchisement Methods:

  • Residency requirements

  • Poll taxes

  • Literacy tests

  • Grandfather Clause ($1898$)

• Segregation:

  • Plessy v. Ferguson ($1896$) legalized "separate but equal" facilities, which were rarely truly equal.

  • Lynching (around $100$ Black individuals annually from $1890s$ to early $1900s$) served as a brutal form of racial intimidation.

Civil Rights Responses and Progressive Era Reformers

• Civil Rights Approaches:

  • Booker T. Washington: Accommodation through education, skill acquisition, and gradual assimilation.

  • Ida B. Wells: Agitation against discrimination, advocating for change.

  • W.E.B. DuBois: Legislation and legal reform.

• Muckrakers (Investigative Journalists): Exposed societal ills and corruption, setting high journalistic standards.

  • Jacob Riis: Horrendous living conditions in city slums.

  • Henry Lloyd: Impact of monopolies on working conditions.

  • Ida Tarbell: Practices of Standard Oil Company.

  • Lincoln Steffens: Corruption in city governments.

  • Upton Sinclair: Unsanitary practices in the food industry (The Jungle).

Shifting Worldviews and Educational Reform

• Increased acceptance of science (Darwin's evolution) and psychology (Freud).

• Emphasis on scientific method, pragmatism, and optimism over traditional religious doctrines.

• John Dewey and Pragmatism in Education:

  • Advocated a "school-to-work" approach, prioritizing practical skills for jobs over classical or critical thinking studies.

  • Believed in pragmatism, where methods are pursued if they effectively achieve goals.

Rise of National Power and Progressive Presidents

• Theodore Roosevelt ($1901$-$1909$):

  • Domestic Policy ("Square Deal"): Distinguished "good" from "evil" corporations, regulated the economy, busted "bad trusts" (e.g., Northern Securities Company).

  • Conservationism: Protected millions of acres as national parks, appointed Gifford Pinchot to the Forest Service.

  • Foreign Policy ("Big Stick" Diplomacy): Asserted US intervention in Latin America.

    • Facilitated the construction of the Panama Canal ($1903$).

    • Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine declared the US an "international police power" in the Western Hemisphere.

• William Howard Taft ($1909$-$1913$):

  • Dedicated trust buster (e.g., broke up Standard Oil in $1911$).

  • Supported the $16^{th}$ Amendment (federal income tax).

  • Foreign Policy ("Dollar Diplomacy"): Promoted US influence through loans and economic investment rather than military force.

• The Election of $1912$:

  • Four major candidates: Taft (Republican), Roosevelt (Progressive), Eugene Debs (Socialist), Woodrow Wilson (Democrat).

  • Roosevelt and Taft split the Republican vote, allowing Wilson to win with 42% of the popular vote.

  • Woodrow Wilson's "New Freedom": Aimed to restore market competition by preventing big business dominance, advocated for stronger antitrust laws and small business support.

  • Theodore Roosevelt's "New Nationalism": Accepted big business but sought extensive federal regulation and social welfare programs (e.g., women's suffrage, $8$-hour workday, social insurance).

• **Woodrow Wilson