Alexander the Great and the Roman Republic

Alexander the Great

  • Buccephalus: Alexander’s horse, known for being untameable.

  • Background:
      - Son of Philip of Macedonia.
      - Pupil of Aristotle.
      - Turbulent relationship with his father, Philip.

  • Philip's Assassination:
      - Occurred in 336 BC, leading to Alexander inheriting the throne at the age of 20.
      - Inherits plans to conquer Asia and an army of 35,000 men, including architects, engineers, botanists, and historians.

  • Early Campaigns:
      - Before invading Persia, visits Corinth and meets Diogenes.
      - 334 BC: Army sets off for conquest.
      - 333 BC: Achieves victory at the Battle of Issus against a Persian army; King Darius III flees.
      - Continues to conquer Syria, Lebanon, Gaza, and Egypt.
        - Seen as a hero by the Egyptians, leads to him being named Pharaoh.
        - Founding of Alexandria, a city named after him.

  • Major Battles:
      - 331 BC: Battle of Gaugamela; motivational speech before the fight.
      - Utilizes phalanx battle formation and fights alongside soldiers.
      - Darius III flees again and is ultimately killed by his followers.
      - Alexander burns the city of Persepolis as revenge for past Persian actions against Athens.

  • Personal Life:
      - Marries a Bactrian princess, showing signs of assimilating into cultures he conquered.
      - Clitus, a soldier who fought alongside his father, is killed by Alexander, causing him to experience suicidal thoughts.
      - Encounters monks in India/Pakistan and forms a bond with a dwarf eunuch.

  • Final Battles:
      - 326 BC: Defeats King Porus at the Battle of the Hydaspes River in India.

Death of Alexander

  • Death:
      - 324 BC in Babylon after a 3-night celebration; dies on the 4th night of unknown causes.

  • Impact:
      - Seen as the first example of globalization.
      - After his death, the empire fractured into three major kingdoms:
        - Seleucids: Western Asia.
        - Ptolemies: Egypt.
        - Antigonids: Macedonia.

The Roman Republic

Etruscans :

  • 8th BC - tribal communities - hills above the Tiber river) 

  • The Etruscans (located in the north of italy) come down from there and conquer what later becomes Rome 

  • What the Etruscans influence in the roman empire:

    • Architecture + sculpture 

    • Engineering + roads 

    • The color purple (represents royalty)

    • Language ( created words like - arena, autumn)

  • Formation and Early History:
      - Established in 509 BC after Roman aristocrats overthrew the Etruscan monarchy.
      - The patricians, wealthy aristocrats, dominate power; commoners known as plebeians.

  • Government Structure:
      - Two Consuls: Elected executives serving one-year terms with potential for a six-month dictatorship in emergencies.
      -     Senate: Legislative body with 300 members (minimum age 32).
      -     Centuriate Assembly: Popular assembly primarily comprising soldiers.

Struggle of the Orders

  • Class Tensions:
      - Patricians controlled wealth and power; plebeians had none, leading to civil unrest.
      - Plebeians threaten military and tax service cessation, prompting concessions from patricians.

  • Plebian Assembly and Reforms:
      - Two tribunes established to represent plebeians.
      - 450 BC: Creation of The Twelve Tables - , the first written code of laws - copied off of Solon

  • These laws codified legal standards and protected the rights of the plebeians, laying the foundation for future legal principles in the Roman Republic.

  • The establishment of the Council of the Plebs further empowered the plebeians, allowing them to propose legislation and challenge patrician authority.
        - Notable laws include:
          - Bribery: death penalty.
          - Using magic on crops is punishable.
          - Right to kill intruders at night.
          - Women considered of full age at 25.
      - 287 BC: Plebeian Assembly granted power to enact laws.
      - Patron-Client Relationship allows patricians to maintain control over plebeians.

  • Expansion of Roman territory during the Republic led to increased wealth and power.

  • The integration of conquered peoples into the Roman system often resulted in new alliances, which further strengthened the Republic's military and economic position.

Expansion of the Roman Republic

  • Territorial Unity:
      - 450 - 146 BC: Italy under Roman hegemony through organic expansion influenced by patrician officers.
      - Greatness attributed to disciplined, trained, and loyal Roman soldiers.
      - 264 BC: Establishment of the Italian Confederation.

  • Conflict with Carthage:
      - 300 BC: Rising tension leading to the     Punic Wars.
      -     First Punic War (264 - 241 BC): Depletes resources but results in victories leading to control of Corsica and Sardinia.
        - Second Punic War (218 - 201 BC): Hannibal, the Carthaginian general, famously invades through the Alps with elephants.
          - 216 BC: Hannibal delivers a major defeat at the Battle of Cannae, which marks a dark period for Rome.
        - Rome Sent Scipio Africanus to invade Carthage 

  • in 204 BC, leading to the decisive Battle of Zama in 202 BC, where Scipio's tactics culminate in a critical victory over Hannibal, effectively ending the Second Punic War.

  • Rome ultimately wins the Second Punic War at the Battle of Zama (202 BC).
      -     Third Punic War (146 BC): Results in the utter destruction of Carthage, demonstrating the deteriorating moral character of Rome.
      - By 146 BC, Rome controls the Mediterranean world. they took over Macedonia, western asia, egypt, asia minor

  • Consequences of Expansion:
      1. Adoption of laws from conquered territories, leading to     Jus Gentium

  • Increased cultural exchange and assimilation, resulting in the Hellenization of Roman society and the spread of Greek art, philosophy, and governance.

  • (law of nations).
      2. Constant warfare stimulates business through supply contracts.
      3. Tax collection outsourced leads to exploitation of conquered peoples.
      4.     Blingification of society evidenced by excessive displays of wealth.
      5.     Slavery became prevalent; by 50 BC, ⅓ of Rome's population were slaves.
        - 73 BC: Spartacus leads a revolt with an army of 150,000, ultimately defeated and met with brutal reprisals.

Positive Aspects of Roman Rule

  • Romans brought peace, infrastructure, and civilization to subjected areas.

  • Allowed for some degree of self-government in provinces.

Decline of the Roman Republic

  • Causes of Decline:
      1. Failure to recognize the transition into an empire.
      2. Increasing greed and selfishness among the elite.
      3. Degeneration of the Senate.
      4. Internal conflict after defeating foreign enemies.
      5. Agricultural crises initiated by the Gracchan Revolution leading to unrest among veteran farmers.

  • Tiberius Gracchus (133 BC): Elected tribune, promised land redistribution, faced opposition from the Senate and was assassinated.

  • Gaius Gracchus (123 BC): Continuing his brother's legacy, faced similar fates after instigating reforms that proved too popular, leading to his murder along with followers.

Era of Rival Generals

  • 107 - 89 BC: Roman general Sulla conflicts with Marius, who created the professional army.
      - Marius:

  • military reforms expanded recruitment to the lower classes, which ultimately shifted loyalty from the Senate to the generals. Marius's institutional changes set the stage for future power struggles in Rome.

  • Sulla: A key rival to Marius, he seized control of Rome through military might, initiating proscriptions and consolidating power, which further intensified the competition among generals.

  • Key military figure known for military innovations.
      - Civil war erupts; Sulla emerges as ruler and expands the Senate.

  • Triumvirate (60 BC): ruling of three
      - Formed by Crassus, Pompey, and Julius Caesar.
      - Julius Caesar (59 BC): Extensively campaigns in Gaul/France, achieves significant military victories.
      - Senate grows concerned by his power and orders him back without troops, leading to the metaphorical “crossing the Rubicon.”
      - Caesar defeats Pompey and assumes dictatorship for 5 years, pursuing moderate policies for social stability.

The Reforms of Caesar

  • Policies instituted under Caesar include:
      - Tax reduction.
      - Required governors to answer to him.
      - Extended citizenship.
      - Addressed exploitation in provinces.
      - Initiated public works to improve job availability.
      - Relocated 100,000 veterans and allocated land for them.

  • Assassination (44 BC):
      - Caesar receives multiple stab wounds from senators during a Senate address, leading to civil war.

  • Post-Assassination:
      - Conflict breaks out among his generals; Lepidus, Mark Antony, and Octavian vie for power.
      - Octavian ensures victory against Antony and Cleopatra in the Battle of Actium (31 BC).

  • Establishment of Roman Empire:
      - 27 BC: Octavian is granted the title of Emperor and named Augustus; marks significant political restructuring.
      - Preaches the importance of family and indirectly critiques political dissent.

Policies of Augustus

  • Reforms instituted under Augustus include:
      1. Army reforms: enhanced pay and retirement bonuses.
      2. Defense-oriented deployments of the military.
      3. Infrastructure improvements, including aqueducts.
      4. Integration of Italians into government and military structure.
      5. Development of an imperial bureaucracy for administration.

After Augustus: The Roman Empire

  • Foundational Strength:
      - Under Augustus, the foundations of the Empire become robust, though poor leadership soon emerges.

  • Nero (68 AD): Known for insanity and disastrous decision-making, including the burning of Rome.

  • Vespasian: Prominent for constructing the Colosseum and managing the Jewish uprising (66 - 73 AD); culminates in the Siege of Jerusalem.

The Five Good Emperors

  • Timeline:
      1. Nerva (96 - 98 AD): Introduced a system of appointing capable heirs.
      2. Trajan: Notable for lowering taxes and aiding the impoverished.
      3. Hadrian: Pioneered the construction of Hadrian’s wall; oversaw the second Hebrew Revolt.
      4. Antoninus Pius: Ensured peace and prosperity during his rule.
      5. Marcus Aurelius: Philosopher king during turbulent times; dealt with incursions from Germanic tribes and Northern influence.

  • Commodus: Ends the trend of selecting competent leaders; symbolizes the Empire's decline.

Life Under the Pax Romana

  • Notable achievements include:
      - Extensive road systems (53,000 miles).
      - Engineering innovations, ensuring clean water supply; bathhouses prevalent.
      - Contributions to medicine through authorities such as Galen.
      - Legal legacy in civil law:     Jus Civile and Jus Gentium (law of nations).
      - Improved conditions for slaves and women under Roman rule; some liberties granted.

Decline Factors of the Roman Empire

  • Declining Character and Choices:
      1. The Third Century Crisis: Open citizenship leads to devalued army recruits.
      2. Military Anarchy: Declining soldier quality, internal strife (235 - 285 AD); 25 of 26 soldier emperors processed through violence.
      3. Vulnerable borders attract invasions from Germanic tribes and Persians.
      4. Economic turmoil: trade disruptions, food shortages, and rampant inflation.
      5. Fringe populations move to break away from Rome.

  • Emperor Diocletian (285 - 305 AD):
      - Implements strict military discipline.
      - Attempts a restoration through strict tax enforcement and militarization of the state.
      - Establishes the     Tetrarchy; rule by four leaders in an attempt to restore order.

  • Divides the empire into four regions, each ruled by a co-emperor to improve governance and defense against external threats.

The Rise of Constantine

  • Constantine (306 - 337 AD):
      - Builds Constantinople (Istanbul), emerges from the Tetrarchy crisis.
      - Key victory at the Battle of Milvian Bridge -

  • this battle solidifies his power and leads to the Edict of Milan, which grants religious tolerance and promotes Christianity within the empire.

    • Initiates significant reforms in the Roman government, military, and economy that further stabilize the empire and set the foundation for the Byzantine Empire.

    • Encourages the spread of Christian teachings through patronage, leading to the establishment of churches and fostering a culture that intertwines state and religion.


  •   - First Roman emperor to convert to Christianity.

  • 4th Century Struggles:
      - Continued pressures from external attackers, including the Huns and various Germanic tribes.

  • Collapse of Western Empire:
      - 378 AD: Visigoths achieve a significant victory over Romans at Adrianople.
      -     476 AD: Germanic invasions lead to the deposition of the last Roman emperor in the West, Odoacer.

Christianity and Early Church

  • Origins of Christianity:
      - Jesus, born and crucified under Roman authority during 1st BC, had no contemporaneous writings.
      - Various sects of Judaism existed, including Sadducees, Pharisees, Zealots, and Essenes.

  • Development of Early Christianity:
      - Small group of followers initially, facing persecution from both Romans and other Jewish sects.
      - Saul/St. Paul: Originally a Pharisee and opponent of Jewish Christians, converts and expands Christianity to Gentiles.
      - Roman infrastructure aids in establishing Christianity as a prominent world religion.

  • Apostolic Era:
      - Diocletian's era marked by severe persecution; contrast with Constantine's recognition of the faith.
      - Theodosius I establishes Christianity as the official religion of the Empire in 380 AD.

Early Christian Church Structure

  • Hierarchy Formation:
      - Roman governance structures mirrored in church governance (Emperor becomes Pope, governors become bishops).

  • Resistance and Reform:
      - Development of monasticism in response to the worldly nature of expanding church power.
      - The Council of Nicaea

      - Convened in 325 AD, it aimed to address the Arian controversy and establish a unified Christian doctrine.

  • (325 AD): addressed theological disputes, including Christ's divinity.

The Crisis of the Third Century and Aftermath

  • Centralized power structure collapses post-Diocletian leading to conflicts.

  • The eventual fall of Rome in 476 AD marked the end of the Western Roman Empire.

  • Notable work by Augustine of Hippo; author of The City of God.