Modern Europe and the World

Modern Europe and the World (1991 – Present)

Post-Cold War Russia

  • The end of the Soviet Union coincided with the rise of President Boris Yeltsin (1991-1999).
  • Gorbachev's relevance declined after the USSR collapse.
  • Yeltsin's “shock therapy” aimed to modernize Russia via rapid privatization.
  • Negative consequences included:
    • Hyperinflation devalued the currency and plunged millions into poverty.
    • Production crashed.
    • State-owned businesses were acquired by “oligarchs” (managers, ex-officials, criminals).
    • Oligarchs controlled privatized businesses as monopolies, supported Yeltsin, and corruption became endemic.
  • Yeltsin used the military to disband parliament during the 1993 Constitutional Crisis (over 100 deaths).
  • Initial optimism in Russia faded and was replaced by cynicism during the 1990s.
  • On December 31, 1999, Yeltsin resigned and Vladimir Putin became President.
  • Putin ruled from 2000-2008 and again from 2012 to the present, after changing the constitution.
  • Putin is a former KGB operative and head of the FSB.
  • Initially focused on economically modernizing Russia with emphasis on fossil fuels/natural gas.
  • Early years saw growth of the Russian economy.
  • Utilized terrorism and assassination against political enemies, including those abroad.
  • Brought the Second Chechen War to an end – an extremely brutal conflict.
  • Launched war against Georgia over South Ossetia in 2008.
  • In 2014, after the Euromaidan Revolt in Ukraine, annexed Crimea and supported the separatist war in Donbas.
  • Russia was expelled from G8 (now G7).
  • In February 2022, Putin launched the invasion of Ukraine, facing international criticism.
  • Putin’s justifications were based on claims of neo-Nazis in the Ukrainian government committing genocide against Russians in Donbas, the idea that Ukraine has historically been part of Russia, and Ukrainian efforts to draw closer to the EU and NATO.

USSR and Russia: 1985-Present (Timeline)

  • 1985 – Gorbachev takes power in USSR: perestroika (restructuring, capitalist reforms) and glasnost (openness, free press).
  • 1985-1991 – increasing independence of former satellite states.
  • 1989 – Berlin Wall falls, Germany reunified.
  • 1991 – USSR collapses; Boris Yeltsin elected after coup to remove Gorbachev.
  • 1999 – Putin elected; Second Chechen War begins.
  • 2008 – Dmitry Medvedev becomes President (Putin PM); Russia occupies contested territory in Georgia.
  • 2014 – Putin occupies Crimea; war begins in Donbas.
  • 2022 – Putin launches “special military operation” (invasion of Ukraine).

Resurgent Nationalism: The Collapse of Yugoslavia

  • Tito, the leader of Yugoslavia, died in 1980, leading to resurgent national rivalries.
  • In 1989, Serbian president Slobodan Milosevic discriminated against ethnic Albanians in Kosovo.
  • Growing rivalry led Albanians and Croatians to declare independence in 1991; Milosevic invaded to reunite them.
  • In 1992, Bosnia-Herzegovina tried to break away.
  • Serbs invaded to suppress Bosnian Muslims (Bosniaks), committing “ethnic cleansing” (300,000 killed).
  • July 1995 – Bosnian Serbs overran Srebrenica, a UN safe area, killing 8,000 Bosniaks.
  • NATO intervention in 1995 led to defeat of Bosnian Serbs; Croatian army drove Serbs out of their country.
  • Albanians in Kosovo formed the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) to fight for independence; Serbian military invaded in 1998.
  • NATO bombing campaign in 1999 drove Serbs out of Kosovo; huge numbers of people displaced.
  • Milosevic was forced from office and handed over to a war crimes tribunal in 2001; he died in prison in 2006.
  • Republic of Kosovo declared independence in 2008 – recognized by the US and most of the EU, but not by Serbia and Russia.

The Formation and Evolution of the European Union

  • Maastricht Treaty (1992): Culmination of closer European integration; set standards for a common economic zone; began establishing common policies regarding defense and foreign affairs.
  • In 1993, the European Common Market renamed itself the European Union.
  • In 2002, many EU members implemented the euro (Denmark, Sweden, UK refused).
  • This common currency established the “Eurozone."
  • Conditions for implementing the euro involved fiscal conservatism: tight budgets, low inflation, and small deficits.
  • In the early 2000s, the EU began admitting former members of the Eastern Bloc.
  • A proposed constitution for the EU in 2004, which would have created a more centralized federal system, failed to gain unanimous support due to nationalist fears.
  • Treaty of Lisbon 2009:
    • Granted more power to the bicameral legislature of the EU in Brussels.
    • Created the office of the President of the European Council.
    • Established the Charter of Fundamental Rights.
    • Established the right for EU states to leave the organization.

The EU and Brexit

  • Problems with the European Union: uniting 17+ nations under one currency tied them to each other’s issues.
  • Greece’s financial crisis in 2010 had widespread impacts.
  • The bank did not serve all members equally; Germany perceived to be a “winner” while other countries were