Politics Vocabulary

Democratic Rule

• Democracy is a complex concept with no universally agreed definition.
• Many adjectives describe democratic regimes: liberal, representative, electoral, illiberal, consolidated.
• Core principle: Self-rule (Greek: demokratia - rule (kratos) by the people (demos)).
• About half the world's states are classified as either full or flawed democracies (Democracy Index).

Key Features of a Democracy

• Stable and accountable political institutions.
• Protection of individual rights (civil liberties and civil rights).
• Protected political opposition that is active, effective, and safe.
• Political culture conducive to the functioning of democracy.
• Efficient government.
• Independent and diverse media, subject to few political controls.
• Free flow of political information distinguishes democracies from authoritarian regimes.
• Effective system of checks and balances among institutions.
• Independent judiciary.
• Government based on a fair and open mandate from all qualified citizens.
• Rule of law: societies governed by clear, stable, and just laws applied equally to all residents.
• Achieving these ideals has had a mixed record, even in successful democracies.

Types of Democracy (Direct vs. Representative)

• Direct democracy: purest form of self-rule.

  • All qualified citizens participate in shaping collective decisions in an atmosphere of equality and deliberation.
  • State and society ideally become one.
  • Example: Athenian government (461-322 BCE) – male citizens attended meetings of the People's Assembly.
  • Features: Citizens debate and reach decisions on matters of common interest.
  • Limitations: Rarely used today, except at the local level. Athenian system excluded women, foreigners, and enslaved people and required significant time commitment from participants.
  • Modern Examples: Found mainly in the form of referendums and initiatives.

• Representative democracy: citizens cede governing powers to elected officials who are held accountable at elections.

  • Predominant form of democracy in practice today.
  • Based on two key principles: majority rule with minority rights and the rule of law.
  • Features: Citizens elect a legislature and, in presidential systems, a chief executive.
  • Limitations/Weaknesses: Creates a barrier between rulers and the ruled. Many representative democracies are plagued by elitism, inequality, and restrictions on individual and group rights.

• Liberal democracy: representative and liberal, based on limited government and constitutional protection of individual rights.

  • Seeks to ensure that even a representative government respects the will of the people and defends citizens, particularly minorities, against the danger of tyranny by the majority.

• Illiberal democracy: recent version reflecting the weakening of democracy in several countries.

  • Associated with populism and overlaps with hybrid regimes.
  • Suggests that democracy can be weakened from within.
  • The Democracy Index distinguishes between Full democracies and Flawed democracies.

• Full democracies: regimes with the strongest democratic features (strong and independent institutions, respect for individual rights).

  • Examples: Nordic countries, Australia, Canada, Chile, Costa Rica, Japan, Mauritius, New Zealand, South Korea, and Uruguay.

• Flawed democracies: regimes that meet most conditions for being democracies but face significant weaknesses.

Strengths/Weaknesses of Democratic Systems

*Implied Strengths (based on features of Full Democracies):

• Respect for political freedoms and civil liberties.

• Functioning government with efficient processes, checks and balances, and independent institutions.

• Opportunities for political participation and a conducive political culture.

• Accountability of government.

• A protected political opposition.

• Independent and diverse media encouraging the free flow of information.

• Citizens of democracies are, overall, wealthier, healthier, and happier than those in authoritarian regimes, though significant internal divisions exist.

• Liberal democracies have developed a solid record of interstate cooperation.

• The broad goals of the democratic model – including freedom, choice, security, and wealth – are widely shared.
  *Weaknesses and Challenges:

• Gap between ideal and reality: Even the most successful democracies have had a mixed record in achieving democratic ideals.

• Inherent barrier in representative democracy: Creates a divide between rulers and ruled, contributing to elitism, inequality, and restrictions on rights.

• Weaknesses in Flawed Democracies: Infringements on media freedom, problems in governance, underdeveloped political culture, and low levels of political participation.

• Influence of Special Interests: Elected officials are often influenced by special interests, big business, or those with the means to be heard loudest.

• Unequal Representation in Electoral Systems: States have failed to develop electoral systems where all votes are equally counted and represented.

• Varying and Declining Voter Turnout: Questions are raised about participation rates, which differ by time, place, and social groups. Even in democracies, participation is far from equal.

• Election Manipulation: Elections can be manipulated in many ways, including complex registration, voter intimidation, tampering with systems, miscounting ballots, and hacking.

• Media Issues: Political parties and candidates receive unequal media attention, money skews attention, media is often controlled by corporate or political interests, and social media contributes to misinformation and manipulation.

• Democratic Backsliding/Regression/Erosion: Recent years have seen worrying reversals and new threats to democracy. Key indicators include a widening gap between national electorates and political elites/parties, and a decline in civil liberties, including media freedom and freedom of speech.

• Internal Challenges: Social disintegration, voter alienation, tensions between individual rights and democracy, and competitive politics/economics undermining the sense of community.

• Democracy is Hard Work: Requires citizens to respect different views, sift information, and possess thoughtfulness, discipline, and logic.

• Perceived Elitism and Disconnection: Many citizens feel governance is elitist and disconnected, leading to diminished engagement or support for populist leaders.

• Authoritarian Surge: Democracies face pressures from more confident authoritarian regimes that challenge the liberal international order.

• Internal Inequalities and Divisions: Democracies face significant internal inequalities and are often divided within themselves.

• Democracies need to improve in meeting their core principles and communicating their benefits globally.

Understanding the State

• The state is defined as a legal and political entity with a specific population and recognized borders.

• It is the world's dominant form of political organization and the building blocks of the international system.

• Max Weber's definition: "A human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory".

• Five main features of a modern state:

  1. Government: Authority to administer and represent the state.
  2. Population: Residents within the territory.
  3. Territory: Fixed borders and control over movement across those borders.
  4. Sovereignty: Sole authority to impose laws and taxes.
  5. Legitimacy: Recognition by residents and other states.

• State vs. Government: State is a political community; government is the agency that manages the community.

• States have roles and responsibilities, including maintaining law and order, national security, managing money and taxes, trade, adopting regulations, and providing welfare and infrastructure.

• They are also responsible for meeting international law obligations.

Understanding Nations

• Nation is a cultural and historical concept.
• It describes a group of people who identify with one another based on shared history, culture, language, or myths.
• Nations are sometimes considered "imagined communities".
• A key link exists between a nation and a specific territory or "homeland".

Nation-State vs. Multinational State

• A nation-state is a state whose citizens share a common national identity (e.g. Iceland, Japan).
• A multinational state is a state in which multiple national groups live under a shared government (e.g. Britain, Canada, Belgium).
• International migration is increasing the diversity of states, moving many towards multinationalism.
• Some national groups, such as the Kurds, are divided among several states and form a stateless nation.

Diversity and Challenges: Weak/Failed States

• Quasi-states: exist and are recognized under international law but whose governments control little of the territory under their jurisdiction (e.g. Somalia).
• De facto states: states that are not recognized under international law even though they control territory and provide governance (e.g. Somaliland, Kosovo, Taiwan).
• Failed, fragile, or failing states: states with so many internal problems that they have stopped functioning effectively (e.g. Eritrea, Haiti, Somalia, Syria, and Yemen).

Evolution of the State

• The modern state emerged from medieval Europe (c.1000–1500).
• The concept of sovereignty was key.
• The form of the modern state was later exported globally by imperial powers.
• The late twentieth century saw the most recent wave of state formation, triggered by the collapse of communism and the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
• Many newly independent states that emerged from European colonialism have struggled with internal cohesion and stability.

Nationalism

• Originally, nationalism meant that nations had a right to shape their own destiny, summarized as the right to self-determination – the right of a people to possess its own government.
• Nationalism has also taken on a second and more troubling meaning that goes beyond national identity. It describes more extreme actions taken by nationalist groups to promote their interests through a combination of assumed superiority and exclusion.
• Nationalism has been a powerful force shaping world affairs for centuries and has a symbiotic relationship with the state.

Political Culture

• Political culture is the sum of individual and group values, beliefs, attitudes, norms, and expectations regarding politics and government.
• Four key features:
  • Limits: It's not always generalizable to an entire community
  • Measurement: It's not always easy to identify or quantify.
  • Changeability: Culture is not static
  • Complexity: Multiple cultures are more likely to exist than universal cultures within a society.
• Political culture vs. political ideology: Political culture is less systematic, reflecting looser social norms and expectations.
• Elite political culture represents the values and expectations of those closest to power.
• Complex societies often have a national political culture alongside one or more subcultures.

Types of Political Culture: The Civic Culture and Beyond

• Civic Culture (Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba):

  • Moderate political culture where most citizens accept the obligation to participate in politics while acknowledging the authority of the state and its right to make decisions.
  • Ideal conditions for democracy emerge when citizens have the potential to act if needed but are not constantly involved in politics.

• Shift from allegiance (associated with civic culture) to assertion, with citizens becoming more distrustful of electoral politics and institutions and more willing to confront elites.

Political Socialization

• Political socialization is how individuals acquire their political beliefs and values.
• Political culture is the sum of individual and group values and beliefs, implying these are learned and absorbed.

Post-Materialism

• Ronald Inglehart introduced the concept of post-materialism.
• Affluence, peace, and security lead to a "silent revolution" where citizens emphasize the quality of life over materialist values.
• Post-material values prioritize environmental protection, tolerance of foreigners, gender equality, and greater participation in political and economic decision-making.
• Post-materialism forms one dimension (survival vs. self-expression) of the Inglehart-Welzel cultural map.

Trust in Government

• Political trust is the belief that rulers are generally well-intentioned and effective in serving the interests of the governed.
• Levels of political trust have been falling across many democracies since the 1990s.
• Factors potentially contributing to low trust include corruption, elitism, specific events, political divisions, economic problems, and social change.

Authoritarian Rule

• Authoritarian rule is characterized by centralized government, power held by the ruling elite, and limits on the freedoms of citizens.
• Based on submission to the authority of ruling elites, limited political pluralism, centralized political control, intolerance of opposition, and human rights abuses.

Types of Authoritarian Rule:

• Absolute monarchy
• Presidential monarchy
• Ruling party
• Military rule
• Hybrid regimes
• Authoritarian regimes
• Totalitarianism

Tools:

• Authoritarian leaders exploit four key control devices: coercion, patronage, the military, and the media.
  • Coercion
  • Patronage
  • The Military
  • The Media
  • Propaganda
• Other methods of rule include repression, intimidation, and co-option.

Corruption

• Corruption is far from unique to authoritarian regimes but plays a particularly telling role in hybrid and authoritarian regimes.
• It involves the abuse of office for private gain.
• Patronage networks override the public-private divide, contributing to corruption.
• Specific forms of corruption mentioned in the sources include electoral fraud, bribery, influence peddling, patronage, nepotism, cronyism, embezzlement, and kickbacks.

Durability:

• About as many people still live under authoritarian rule. Authoritarianism has proved resilient.
• The number of authoritarian regimes has begun to grow slightly of late.
• Authoritarian tendencies have become more evident in countries long regarded as democracies.
• Cultural factors may contribute to durability.
• The future of authoritarian regimes is hard to know, but they currently seem to be on the rise.

Chapter 1: Government and Politics

• Political science is defined as the sub-division of social science that focuses on government and politics, and it has multiple facets, including comparative politics.
• Comparative politics is critical and one of the oldest tools of political science. It is defined as the systematic study of government and politics in different countries.
• Government suggests a relatively static world of institutions. Governance, on the other hand, highlights the process and quality of collective decision-making and the activity of governing.
• The chapter ends with a discussion of how to understand political systems and regimes and how they are classified.

Chapter 2: Making Comparisons

• The comparative method is central to all political research and encourages critical thinking. It involves researching facts, thinking critically about their significance, questioning findings, and drawing conclusions.
• Choosing cases for comparison is a central focus. Researchers must decide on the number of cases: a single case (n), a few cases (small-n), or a large number of cases (large-n).
• The case study method is highlighted as one of the most widely used strategies. It involves the intensive study of a single case to understand a larger class of cases (a population).
• Theory is discussed as important for comparison, helping to organize observations and guide research questions. Theory acts as a simplifying device or conceptual filter.
• Key challenges include having too few cases and too many variables (making generalization difficult, especially in small-n studies) and selection bias, which occurs when case selection distorts findings.

Notes on Other Chapters (7-18, excluding 3, 4, 5, 6)

• Chapter 7: Constitutions and courts
• Chapter 8: Executives
• Chapter 9: Legislatures
• Chapter 10: Bureaucracies
• Chapter 11: Sub-national government
• Chapter 12: The media
• Chapter 13: Political participation
• Chapter 14: Elections
• Chapter 15: Political parties
• Chapter 16: Interest groups
• Chapter 17: Public policy
• Chapter 18: Political economy

Key lists of concepts, indicators, and features Chapter 1: Government and Politics

• Key Concepts:
  • Government
  • Governance
  • Politics
  • Power
  • Authority
  • Regime
  • Political System
  • Institution
  • Typology

Chapter 2: Making Comparisons

• Key Comparative Approaches:
  • Most Similar Systems
  • Most Different Systems
• Key Methods:
  • Qualitative
  • Quantitative
  • Historical
• Major Challenges in Comparison:
  • Too few cases, too many variables
  • Selection bias
  • Understanding meaning (cultural/contextual)
  • Impact of globalization on independence of states.

Chapter 3: States and Nations

• Key Features of a State:
  1. Government
  2. Population
  3. Territory
  4. Sovereignty
  5. Legitimacy
• Types of States:
  • Quasi-states
  • De facto states
• Nation Concepts:
  • Nation
  • Self-determination
  • Nation-state vs. Multinational state
  • Nationalism

Chapter 4: Political Culture

• Key Elements:
  • Political culture
  • Civic culture (Almond & Verba)
  • Elite political culture
  • Multiculturalism
  • Identity politics
  • Post-materialism
  • Political trust

Chapter 5: Democratic Rule

• Features of Democracy:
  • Self-rule
  • Polyarchy (Dahl)
• Types of Democracy:
  • Direct democracy
  • Representative democracy
  • Liberal democracy
  • Illiberal democracy
• Democracy Indicators:
  • Democracy Index
  • Freedom House scores
  • Political rights and civil liberties

Chapter 6: Authoritarian Rule

• Key Features:
  • Centralization of power
  • Limited political pluralism
  • Lack of meaningful elections
  • Control of media and expression
  • Use of coercion and surveillance
  • Cult of personality and symbolic legitimacy
• Types of Authoritarian Regimes:
  • Personalist
  • Military
  • One-party
  • Monarchical
• Indicators of Authoritarianism:
  • Suppression of dissent
  • State-controlled media
  • Weak judiciary
  • Electoral fraud or absence of real competition

Key distinctions and differences

• Chapter 1: Government and Politics
  • Term 1: Government / Term 2: Governance / Key Differences: Government = institutions of ruling; Governance = processes of decision-making.
  • Term 1: Politics / Term 2: Government / Key Differences: Politics is the activity/conflict; Government is the structure/institution.
  • Term 1: Power / Term 2: Authority / Key Differences: Power = ability to act; Authority = legitimate right to act.
  • Term 1: Regime / Term 2: Political system / Key Differences: Regime = type (e.g., democratic); System = institutions, actors, and processes.
  • Term 1: Institution / Term 2: Organization / Key Differences: Institutions = rules and norms; Organizations = structured groups (e.g., parties).
• Chapter 2: Making Comparisons
  • Concept 1: Most Similar Systems / Concept 2: Most Different Systems / Key Differences: Similar systems = explain different outcomes; Different systems = explain similarities.
  • Concept 1: Qualitative methods / Concept 2: Quantitative methods / Key Differences: Qualitative = small-n, detailed; Quantitative = large-n, generalizable.
  • Concept 1: Case study / Concept 2: Comparative method / Key Differences: Case study = in-depth single case; Comparative = across multiple cases.
  • Concept 1: Description / Concept 2: Explanation / Key Differences: Description = what happened; Explanation = why/how it happened.
• Chapter 3: States and Nations
  • Term 1: State / Term 2: Nation / Key Differences: State = political/legal entity with sovereignty; Nation = people with shared identity.
  • Term 1: Nation-state / Term 2: Multinational state / Key Differences: Nation-state = one nation dominates; Multinational = multiple nations coexist.
  • Term 1: Quasi-state / Term 2: De facto state / Key Differences: Quasi-state = legally recognized, weak control; De facto = functional, no recognition.
  • Term 1: Self-determination / Term 2: Sovereignty / Key Differences: Self-determination = right of a nation to rule itself; Sovereignty = supreme authority over a territory.
• Chapter 4: Political Culture
  • Concept 1: Civic culture / Concept 2: Subject/Parochial culture / Key Differences: Civic = participation + trust; Subject = passive, aware; Parochial = unaware/disengaged. Civic supports democracy; subject and parochial do not.
  • Concept 1: Elite culture / Concept 2: Mass political culture / Key Differences: Elite = values of decision-makers; Mass = values of the general population.
  • Concept 1: Post-materialism / Concept 2: Materialism / Key Differences: Post-materialism = quality of life; Materialism = economic security.
  • Concept 1: Multiculturalism / Concept 2: Assimilation / Key Differences: Multiculturalism = recognize differences; Assimilation = absorb into one identity.
• Chapter 5: Democratic Rule
  • Term 1: Direct democracy / Term 2: Representative democracy / Key Differences: Direct = people I vote on policy Representative = elect officials to decide Representative is more scalable; direct more participatory.
  • Term 1: Liberal democracy / Term 2: Illiberal democracy / Key Differences: Liberal = protects rights, rule of law; Illiberal = elections without full rights.
  • Term 1: Democracy / Term 2: Polyarchy (Dahl) / Key Differences: Democracy = ideal type; Polyarchy = real-world model with multiple criteria.
  • Term 1: Presidential system / Term 2: Parliamentary system / Key Differences: Presidential = separation of powers; Parliamentary = fusion of executive and legislature.
• Chapter 6: Authoritarian Rule
  • Term 1: Authoritarianism / Term 2: Democracy / Key Differences: Limited/no competition Competitive elections Authoritarian = rule by few; Democracy = rule by many (popular participation).
  • Term 1: Personalist regime / Term 2: Military regime / Key Differences: Personalist = loyalty to a leader; Military = ruled by armed forces.
  • Term 1: One-party state / Term 2: Monarchy / Key Differences: One-party = rule by a party; Monarchy = inherited rule by family lineage
  • Term 1: Surveillance state / Term 2: Participatory state / Key Differences: Surveillance = control via fear/information; Participatory = encourages civic input.

FAQ’s

1. Can you explain the roles of the state?
2. Can you describe the term democratisation and the 4-step democratisation process?
3. Can you explain everything about the failed or marginal state?
4. Can you list and explain the features and qualities of democratic rule? (no marks for features only, must be accompanied by the qualities to a get mark)
5. Can you distinguish between a full and flawed democracy with examples of each?
6. "government" in political science?
7. How does the concept of the "state" differ from "government"?
8. What are the defining features of a modern state?
9. What is the difference between a "nation" and a "state," and how do they relate to "nationalism"?
10. What is a "regime" and how does it relate to a "political system"?
11. How do different types of states vary, beyond their basic features?
12. What are the different levels of government found within states?
13. What are some common challenges to the effective functioning of states?

Chapter 1: Introduction to Comparative Politics

• What is comparative politics, and how does it differ from international relations?
• Why is the comparative method essential in political science?
• What are the main challenges in comparing political systems?
• How do political theories and ideologies shape comparative analysis?

Chapter 2: The State

• What are the defining features of a state, and how do they differ from nations or governments?
• How do strong and weak states differ in terms of capacity and legitimacy?
• Explain the historical development of the modern state system.
• What are failed states, and how can they be identified using empirical indicators?

Chapter 3: Democracy and Authoritarianism

• What are the key characteristics of liberal democracies?
• How do hybrid regimes blur the line between democracy and authoritarianism?
• Discuss the role of civil society and political culture in sustaining democracy.
• Compare and contrast procedural and substantive definitions of democracy.

Chapter 4: Political Culture and Political Socialization

• What is political culture, and how does it influence political stability and change?
• How does political socialization occur, and what are the main agents involved?
• What are the differences between participant, subject, and parochial political cultures?
• How does generational change affect political values and participation?

Chapter 5: Constitutions and the Rule of Law

• What functions do constitutions serve in political systems?
• How do rigid and flexible constitutions differ in practice?
• What is judicial review, and why is it significant for democratic governance?
• Discuss the role of constitutional courts in upholding the rule of law.

Chapter 6: Legislatures

• Compare the structure and functions of unicameral and bicameral legislatures.
• What are the key roles of legislatures in modern democracies?
• How do electoral systems influence the composition and behavior of legislatures?
• Discuss the concept of legislative accountability and representation.

Chapter 1: Government and Politics

• How do government and governance differ?
• What are the primary benefits of using comparison in political science?
• How do we define and classify political systems?

Chapter 2: Making Comparisons

• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the comparative method?
• How do most similar and most different systems designs work?
• What challenges arise from interdependence in comparative analysis?

Chapter 3: States and Nations

• What is the difference between a state and a nation?
• How have modern states evolved historically?
• What challenges do failed and fragile states present?

Chapter 4: Political Culture

• What are the key components of political culture?
• How have theories of political culture evolved from The Civic Culture to post-materialism?
• How does political culture differ in authoritarian vs. democratic regimes?

Chapter 5: Democratic Rule

• What distinguishes liberal from illiberal democracies?
• How do different forms of democracy operate (e.g., direct, representative)?
• What are the current challenges facing democratic rule?

Chapter 6: Authoritarian Rule

• What are the major types of authoritarian regimes?
• How does authoritarianism affect state legitimacy and policy?
• What role does corruption play in sustaining authoritarian systems?

Chapter 7: Constitutions and Courts

• What are the core functions of a constitution?
• How do constitutional and supreme courts differ?
• How do courts operate under authoritarian regimes?

Chapter 8: Executives

• Compare presidential, parliamentary, and semi-presidential systems.
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of each executive type?
• How is executive power structured in non-democratic systems?

Chapter 9: Legislatures

• What is the purpose of bicameralism, and when is it effective?
• How do legislatures promote representation and accountability?
• How are legislatures limited in authoritarian regimes?

Chapter 10: Bureaucracies

• How do bureaucracies differ across political systems?
• What are the key factors that influence bureaucratic performance?
• How can bureaucracies be kept accountable?

Chapter 11: Sub-national Government

• Compare unitary and federal systems.
• What are the advantages of decentralization?
• How does sub-national governance function under authoritarian rule?

Chapter 12: The Media

• What role does the media play in democratic societies?
• How do social media and disinformation challenge traditional media roles?
• What is digital authoritarianism?

Chapter 13: Political Participation

• What motivates citizens to participate politically?
• How does political participation differ in authoritarian regimes?
• How does public opinion influence political behavior?

Chapter 14: Elections

• Compare proportional and majoritarian electoral systems.
• How do referendums shape democratic decision-making?
• What mechanisms are used to manipulate elections in authoritarian states?

Chapter 15: Political Parties

• What are the major party system types?
• How do parties differ in structure and ideology?
• How do parties operate in hybrid and authoritarian regimes?

Chapter 16: Interest Groups

• How do interest groups influence policy?
• What distinguishes pluralist from corporatist systems?
• How do authoritarian regimes regulate or suppress interest groups?

Chapter 17: Public Policy

• What models explain the policy-making process?
• How do policy styles differ across countries?
• How do governments use policy to address social inequalities?

Chapter 18: Political Economy

• What are the main schools of thought in political economy?
• How does the welfare state function in different regimes?
• What are the economic challenges faced by authoritarian governments?