Presidencies of Kennedy & Johnson

The 1960 election was one of the closest in history, between Richard Nixon and John F. Kennedy.
There was a need for a president to address Cold War issues.
Richard Nixon:
- He was the Vice President under Eisenhower, bringing experience to the table.
- He possessed knowledge of Soviet and Chinese matters since World War II.
- He gained prominence in the Alger Hiss case.
John F. Kennedy:
- He was a young Massachusetts Senator.
- His campaign slogan was "Get America moving again.”
- At 43, he would have been the youngest person to take office.

Views on policy issues were similar between Nixon and Kennedy.
Kennedy's strengths:
- His stance on civil rights.
- His performance in T.V. interviews.
Kennedy secured the African-American vote after intervening to free Martin Luther King, Jr.

Inaugural Address quote: "And so, my fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country.”
Focus was on uniting the U.S. to combat the spread of communism.
Examples of communist expansion:
- North Korea had become communist.
- Communist North Vietnam was attacking South Vietnam.
- The Communist Party of China had taken control.
- Cuba had been taken over by communism.

Eisenhower's administration used Brinkmanship (threatening nuclear war).
Kennedy rejected Brinkmanship due to its high risk.
Kennedy's strategy: Flexible Response Policy.
- Increased military funding, especially for Special Forces and the Peace Corps.
Peace Corps:
- Sent American volunteers abroad to assist countries in rebuilding.
- Aimed to reduce the likelihood of these countries turning to communism.
Nuclear weapons were still produced, but Kennedy aimed to avoid their use.

Eisenhower administration plan: CIA would train Cuban exiles to overthrow Fidel Castro's communist government in Cuba.
Kennedy approved the plan, which was executed on April 17, 1961.
The invasion failed; Castro's troops easily defeated the 1,500 Cuban exiles.
Consequences:
- It was a defeat for the CIA and the U.S.
- The U.S. faced embarrassment, and Kennedy accepted blame.
- The U.S. pledged to halt communist expansion in the Western Hemisphere.
- Castro accepted Soviet aid.

October 14: U.S. spy plane discovered evidence of Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba.
October 22: JFK demanded the removal of the missiles.
Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev promised to defend Cuba.

The U.S. Navy established a quarantine around Cuba.
Negotiations resulted in Khrushchev agreeing to remove missiles from Cuba:
- The U.S. promised not to invade Cuba.
- The U.S. agreed to remove American missiles from Turkey.
The Cuban Missile Crisis was the closest the U.S. and USSR came to full-scale war.

The USSR constructed the Berlin Wall around West Berlin to prevent East Berliners from escaping communism.
The Wall stood from 1961 to 1989.
Post-WWII division of Germany and Berlin:
- Divided among the US, Britain, France, and the USSR.
The USSR prevented free elections and installed a communist government in East Berlin.
West Berlin became isolated.

1963: A hot line was established between the White House and the Kremlin for direct communication during crises.
The U.S. and USSR signed the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (Limited Test Ban Treaty).
- This treaty only permitted underground nuclear weapon testing.
- It was the first step in controlling nuclear weapons.

The U.S. aimed to surpass the USSR in the Space Race.
The USSR launched “Sputnik” in 1957, the first man-made satellite.
Kennedy described space as the “new frontier” and emphasized the importance of U.S. leadership in space exploration.
Achievements:
- 1961: Soviet Yuri Gagarin was the first person to orbit the Earth.
- 1969: American Neil Armstrong walked on the moon.
Congress established NASA in response to Soviet achievements.
Kennedy promised the U.S. would be the first to put a man on the moon.

JFK introduced numerous domestic bills.
- Protecting wilderness lands from development.
- Providing funding to schools.
- Offering health insurance for the elderly.
Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963, by Lee Harvey Oswald.
He was assassinated before his ideas were implemented, but many were later carried out by Lyndon B. Johnson’s Great Society.

Lyndon B. Johnson (LBJ) was sworn in after JFK's death on the presidential airplane.
LBJ urged Congress to pass JFK’s legislation.
LBJ’s program, known as “the Great Society,” targeted:
- The war on poverty.
- Reducing racial and economic inequality.
Key Legislation:
- February 1964: Congress passed a tax reduction to stimulate the economy.
- Civil Rights Act of 1964: Prohibited discrimination.

Johnson had to decide how to proceed in Vietnam.
He aimed to prevent communist North Vietnam from controlling South Vietnam.
Johnson continued to support South Vietnam.
Congress granted Johnson broad authority, a 'blank check,' to take necessary actions.
Johnson aided South Vietnam by deploying American soldiers.

The Vietnam War's end was not in sight, despite Johnson's claims.
March 31, 1968: Johnson announced he would not seek reelection due to his unpopularity.
Journalists and T.V. reporters informed Americans about the unfavorable situation in Vietnam.
Increasing American discontent with LBJ and the Vietnam War efforts.
Anti-war efforts grew in the U.S.

The Tet Offensive marked a turning point in U.S. support for the war.
The draft undermined support for the war.
- Almost 80% of draftees were economically disadvantaged whites and minorities.
Nixon took office in 1969 amid a divided America.
The Vietnam War would kill Johnson’s chances for reelection.