Nuclear and Organic Chemistry Notes

Definition of Radioactivity: The process by which unstable atomic nuclei lose energy by emitting radiation.
Key Types of Radiation:
- Alpha (): Composed of 2 protons and 2 neutrons; positively charged and heavy.
  - Nuclear Equation Example: _{92}^{238}U \rightarrow _{90}^{234}Th + _{2}^{4}He
- Beta (): High-energy, high-speed electrons or positrons emitted by certain types of radioactive nuclei.
  - Nuclear Equation Example: _{6}^{14}C \rightarrow _{7}^{14}N + _{-1}^{0}e
- Gamma (): High-energy electromagnetic radiation, no mass or charge.
Nuclear Equations: Ensure that the sum of mass numbers (A) and atomic numbers (Z) is balanced on both sides.

Half-Life: The time required for half of a radioactive sample to decay.
- Example: Carbon-14 (half-life = 5715 years) found in materials thought to be millions of years old!
  - Application in Radiometric Dating: Using isotopes to date organic materials.
Half-Life Calculation:
- First-order Kinetics:
  - Decay constant (k) relationship: k = \frac{0.693}{t_{1/2}}
  - Integrated Rate Law: Ln(Nt/N0) = -kt

Einstein's Equation: E = mc^2
- Small amounts of mass correspond to large amounts of energy.

Fission: Splitting of heavy atomic nuclei into lighter nuclei; used in nuclear reactors.
- Example of Fission Reaction:
  - _{92}^{235}U \rightarrow _{36}^{91}Kr + _{56}^{142}Ba + 3 _{0}^{1}n
Fusion: Joining of light atomic nuclei to form a heavier nucleus; process that powers the sun.
- Example of Fusion Reaction: H + H \rightarrow He + energy

Types of Radiation:
- Ionizing: Capable of removing electrons from atoms or molecules.
- Non-Ionizing: Does not have enough energy to ionize atoms.
Biological Effects:
- Radiation can create free radicals, leading to damage in living tissue.
- Applications: Cancer therapy targets radiation-sensitive cancer cells.

Hybridization Types:
- sp^3: Tetrahedral
- sp^2: Trigonal planar
- sp: Linear

Four Types of Hydrocarbons:
- Alkanes: Saturated hydrocarbons; only single bonds.
  - Example: Ethane C2H6
- Alkenes: At least one double bond; unsaturated.
  - Example: Ethylene C2H4
- Alkynes: At least one triple bond; also unsaturated.
  - Example: Acetylene C2H2
- Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Contain a ring structure with delocalized pi electrons.

Definition: Parts of organic molecules responsible for characteristic chemical reactions.
Common Functional Groups:
- Alcohols: Contain hydroxyl group (-OH); more acidic than hydrocarbons.
- Ethers: Generally unreactive, good polar solvents.
- Carbonyl Compounds: Characterized by a carbon-oxygen double bond; includes aldehydes and ketones.
- Carboxylic Acids: Contain -COOH group; weak acids.
- Esters: Formed from carboxylic acids and alcohols; often fruity odors.
- Amines: Organic bases with strong odors.