PSY 100: EXAM 3 (CH. 6 & CH. 8)

Chapter 6

6.1 What is Learning (pages 181-183)

·       What is learning and how does it differ from reflexes/instinctive behavior

Learning is: a relatively permanent change in behavior or recognition that results from experience

Reflexes: involuntary, automatic responses to stimuli; rapid and consistent (ex: blinking, pulling hand away from a hot surface)

Instinctive behavior: innate, complex patterns of behavior/triggered by a specific stimuli (ex: answer when someone is ringing the doorbell)

·       What is meant by classical conditioning (learning by association) versus operant conditioning (learning by consequences) versus observational learning

Classical Conditioning: [learning by association]; What comes before behavior… 

  • Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Presence of stimulus elicits an automatic response (always); automatic response

  • Unconditioned Response (UR): [ex: when we are exposed to US, we have the unlearned response…touching hot stove illicit US]

    • “unlearned”

  • Neural Stimulus (NS): originally no response/reaction

  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): the NS becomes the CS; 

  • Conditioned response (CR): A learned response; same as UR (difference is what is triggering it)

Operant Conditioning: [learning by consequences]; What comes after behavior  

  • An event/stimulus that follows or comes after a behavior and: 

    • Increases likelihood behavior will be repeated= reinforcement

    • Decreases likelihood behavior will be repeated= punishment

  • Reinforcement & Punishment 

    • PR= Positive Reinforcement 

    • NR= Negative Reinforcement 

    • PP= Positive Punishment 

    • NP= Negative Punishment 


Increase Response Probability 

Decrease Response Probability 

Add Stimuli

Positive Reinforcement (add pleasant)

Positive Punishment (add unpleasant)

Remove Stimuli

Negative Reinforcement (take away unpleasant)

Negative Punishment (take away pleasant)


Observational Learning: learning that occurs through the observing of others

6.2 Classical Conditioning (pages 183-192)

·       What is a stimulus? 

A stimulus is  anything that can evoke a response

·       What is classical conditioning, and what are the components of classical conditioning (i.e., US, UR, NS, CS, CR)? 

US= presence of stimulus elicits an automatic response

UR= an unlearned response

NS= originally no response/reaction

CS= The NS becomes the CS 

CR= a learned response; is the SAME as the UR [difference is what’s triggering it]

·    Outline the steps involved in classical conditioning: what happens before, during, and after conditioning

  • Before: 

    • US → UR 

    • NS → nothing (no response)

  • During: 

    • NS + US → UR 

  • After: 

    • CS → CR

·       how was classical conditioning accomplished in Pavlov’s experiments (outline the steps involved before, during, and after conditioning)

  • US= food

  • UR= salivating

  • NS= tone

  • CS= tone

  • CR= salivating 

  • Pavlov Revisited: Before Conditioning 

    • US [food] → UR [salivating] 

    • NS [tone] → nothing [no salivating]

  • Pavlov Revisited: During Conditioning 

    • NS [tone] + US [food] → UR [salivating]

  • Pavlov Revisited: After Conditioning 

    • CS [tone] → CR [salivating]

·       how was classical conditioning accomplished in Watson’s Little Albert study (outline the steps involved before, during, and after conditioning)

  • US= loud noise

  • UR= startle/fear

  • NS= white rat

  • CS= white rat

  • CR= startle fear

  • Before Conditioning 

    • US [loud noise] → UR [startle/fear] 

    • NS [white rat] → nothing [no response]

  • During Conditioning 

    • NS [white rat] + US [loud noise] → UR [startle/fear]

  • After Conditioning 

    • CS [white rat] → CR [startle/fear]

·       how do the terms “unlearned” and “learned” relate to the components of classical conditioning (i.e., unconditioned versus conditioned)

  Unlearned response= UR (unconditioned response): we are supposed to US when we have the UR. 

Learned response= CR (conditioned response): a learned response; the difference is what is triggering this learned response. 

General processes in classical conditioning (pages 188-191)

·       during the acquisition phase of classical conditioning, what does research show about the amount of time needed between presenting the NS and US (a short or long interval)

·       explain how classical conditioning works with regard to the development of taste aversion

·       what is extinction and how does it occur in classical conditioning

·       what is spontaneous recovery and when does it occur

·       what is stimulus generalization in classical conditioning

·       what is stimulus discrimination in classical conditioning

·       who is known as the “Father of Behaviorism” and what did behaviorist believe should be the focus or emphasis of psychology

6.3  Operant Conditioning (pages 192-203)

·       what is operant conditioning, who is associated with this type of learning, and what did this person view as the limit of classical conditioning

B.F. Skinner believed that behavior is controlled/shaped by the environment and that the probability of a response/behavior is changed by its consequences.  
He viewed the limit of classical conditioning as any existing/reflexive behaviors; Operant conditioning identified and explained new, voluntary behaviors. 

·       what does Thorndike’s “law of effect” suggest about behavior

Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors with unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated. [behavior is shaped by its outcomes]

·       what do the terms “positive and negative” mean with regard to operant conditioning

Positive: adding something (stimulus)
 Negative: removing something (stimulus) 

Describing whether a stimulus is added OR taken away. 

·       what is the difference between reinforcement and punishment in terms of the likelihood of behavioral response

Reinforcement: increases the likelihood of a behavioral response 

Punishment: decreases the likelihood of a behavioral response 

·       what is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement and what are some examples of these types of reinforcement

Positive reinforcement: add stimuli (add pleasant)  to increase response probability; Example: a child receives a sticker every time he remembers to brush his teeth

Negative reinforcement: remove stimuli (take away unpleasant) to increase response probability; Example: putting on seat belt to remove annoying sound… now more likely to wear the seatbelt to avoid the sound

·      Are negative reinforcement and punishment the same thing…explain why or why not

Negative reinforcement and negative punishment are not the same thing. They both remove the stimuli, but reinforcement aims to have an increase in a response probability and punishment aims to have a decrease in response probability. 

Negative punishment: remove stimuli (take away pleasant) to decrease response probability; Example: taking away car privileges to avoid children staying out past curfew. 

  • What is the difference between positive and negative punishment and what are some examples of these types of punishment

    • Positive Punishment:  add stimuli to decrease response probability (adding unpleasant); Example: child is suspended from school in order to avoid improper behavior

    • Negative Punishment: remove stimuli to decrease response probability (taking away pleasant); Example: child has gaming devices taken away to avoid them overplaying. 

·       explain the issues related to the use of physical punishment (e.g., spanking) on children’s behavior and whether you would recommend its use to parents

Physical punishment is more often ineffective than effective. It does not teach the child what to do better. It can be harmful emotionally in many ways. It is not something to recommend to parents. 

·       In terms of parenting, research shows parents should engage in what instead of punishment

Positive reinforcement: rewarding a desired behavior to increase their frequency. 

·       what is shaping and how is shaping used to condition a response (including successive approximations)

Shaping is an operant conditioning procedure that reinforces successive approximations of desired behavior

·       what is the difference between primary versus secondary/conditioned reinforcers and what are some examples of each

Primary reinforcers: naturally rewarding and satisfying basic biological needs or drives… Ex: food, water, relief 

Secondary reinforcers: reinforcing because they become associated with PR. acquire reinforcing power through learning… Ex: praise, good grades, money

·       explain what is meant by a token economy and how it can lead to changes in behavior

Token economy: a system where individuals earn tokens for exhibiting desired behaviors; tokens exchanged for rewards or privileges. It leads to change in behavior because the system provides immediate feedback for positive behaviors and is consistent in reinforcing the desired behaviors.  … Ex: within schools, hospitals, prisons

Reinforcement schedules (pages 198-201)

·       of the different types of reinforcement and punishment, what is the most effective way to teach new behavior

Positive Reinforcement is the most effective way because it strengthens the desired actions by adding rewarding stimuli, promoting learning without fear or anxiety 

·       what is a continuous reinforcement schedule and how does it impact learning and extinction of a behavior

Continuous reinforcement schedule reinforces every instance of a behavior, learning to rapid learning but also rapid extinction when reinforcement will stop. 

·       what is a partial or intermittent schedule of reinforcement and how does it impact learning and extinction of a behavior

Partial/intermittent reinforcement schedule is the reinforcement of some (but NOT ALL) responses which results in slower learning but greater resistance to extinction. 

·       differentiate between the four types of partial/intermittent reinforcement schedules (i.e., fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-interval)
 Fixed- Ratio: reinforcement after a set number of responses
 Variable- Ratio: reinforcement  after an unpredictable number of responses
 Fixed-interval: reinforcement  after a set amount of time
Variable-interval: reinforcement  after an unpredictable amount of time 

  • which schedule yields the highest response rate and the greatest resistance to extinction 

    • Variable-ratio schedule yields the highest response rate and greater resistance to extinction because of its unpredictable nature. 

·       what type of reinforcement schedule is associated with gambling behavior and why; also, what does research show about neurotransmitters, particularly dopamine, and gambling

Gambling is associated with variable-ratio schedule because of the unpredictable nature of wins, which keeps the player engaged. Research shows dopamine release levels are heightened during unpredictable reward situations which will reinforce the behavior 

6.4 Observational Learning (Modeling; pages 203-206)

·       what is observational learning and what is meant by “modeling”

Observational learning is learning by watching/observing others & modeling is the process of imitating the observed behavior(s)

·       discuss the four steps involved in the modeling process and how they contribute to learning

Attention:  attention to the model (observing the model)
 Retention: remembering
Reproduction: imitating
Motivation: desire to perform the behavior 
[observing, remembering, imitating, perform]

·       what is meant be vicarious reinforcement versus vicarious punishment

Vicarious reinforcement: learning by observing others being rewarded
 Vicarious punishment: learning by observing others being punished

·       what did Albert Bandura’s “Bobo Doll” study demonstrate about aggression in children discuss how observational learning can contribute to both prosocial and antisocial behaviors 
Children who observed aggressive behavior were more likely to exhibit aggressive behavior themselves. This proved that observational learning can be promote helpful and harmful conduct. 


Chapter 8

8.1 How Memory Functions (pp. 248-255)

  • what is memory often compared to or what is the analogy for memory…”the mind is like/compared to a _____”
    Memory is often compared to a computer… the mind is like/compared to a computer

  • explain the three processes involved in the act of remembering (i.e., encoding, storage, retrieval)
    Encoding: transforming information into a usable form
    Storage: retaining information over time
     Retrieval: accessing stored information 

  • what is the difference between automatic versus effortful processing and which facilitates better encoding
    Automatic processing: unconscious
    Effortful processing: requires conscious attention (facilitates better encoding)

  • Understand Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model of memory storage
    This model proposes 3 stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory 

  • What is sensory memory, and what are the characteristics of this memory store system (duration of visual/iconic and auditory/echoic memory and capacity/how much information can hold) 

    • Sensory memory: Very temporary storage of sensory info 

      • Visual info= .25 seconds 

      • Auditory info= 3-4 seconds 

  • what is short-term memory, and what are the characteristics of the short-term memory store system (duration and capacity) 

    • Short-Term Memory: temporary storage of info (less than 30 seconds) 

    • Holds limited amounts of into; does chunk the information (RANGE= 5-9 items) 

  • Difference between active versus elaborative rehearsal

    • Active rehearsal: repeating information 

    • Elaborative rehearsal: connects new information to existing knowledge (MORE EFFECTIVE)

  • What is long-term memory, and what are the characteristics of this memory store system (duration and capacity)

    • Long-Term Memory: permanent storage of information 

    • Holds an unlimited amount of information  (unlimited duration) 

  • Differentiate between the following types of long-term memories: episodic, semantic, and implicit-procedural memories (note: we discussed these when we covered material from chapter 9, too)

    • Episodic: personal experiences 

    • Semantic: general knowledge 

    • Implicit-procedural: skills and habits 

  • What is meant by “chunking” and what role does it play in memory processes

    • Chunking means grouping information into meaningful units, increasing short-term memory capacity 

    • EX: IRSFBICIA → IRS FBI CIA

  • What is the difference between recall versus recognition methods of retrieval, what are some examples of recall versus recognition tasks, and which task is “easier” or results in better memory performance

    • Recall: retrieving information WITHOUT CUES; Ex: recalling list of words said out loud 

    • Recognition: identifying information from options;Ex: circling form multiple choice to recognize list of words said out loud. 

  • What is meant by “relearning”

    • Learning previously learned information again, which can be faster than initial learning 

  • What is meant by a retrieval cue and how do they help memory?

    • Retrieval cues are stimuli that help to access stored memories 

  • Explain context dependent memory and how the scuba-diver study (Godden & Baddeley, 1975) illustrates this concept.

    • Context Dependent memory: improved recall when in the same context as encoding, illustrated by the scuba-diver study, where divers recall information better when tested in the same environment they learned it

  • What is the serial position effect and explain the difference between a primacy versus recency effect

    • The serial position effect is better recall of items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list 

  • How do working/short-term, and long-term memory stores help explain why we have primacy versus recency effects? 

    • Recency is due to items still in short-term memory, while primacy is due to items transferred to long-term memory

8.2 Parts of the Brain Involved in Memory (pp. 255-258)

  • What are the four parts/structures of the brain that are most involved in memory

    • Hippocampus 

    • Amygdala 

    • Cerebellum 

    • Prefrontal cortex 

  • What part of “patient H.M.’s” brain was damaged to try and stop seizures and what impact did this have on H.M.’s memory

    • H.M’s hippocampus was damaged, causing anterograde amnesia 

8.3 Problems with Memory (pp. 259-264)

  • What is amnesia and what is the difference between anterograde versus retrograde amnesia

    • Amnesia is memory loss

    • anterograde amnesia is inability to form new memories 

    • retrograde amnesia is loss of past memories

  • Which type of amnesia did patient H.M. suffer from

    • H.M. suffered from anterograde amnesia 

  • What is meant by the statement that “memory is reconstructive”

    • Memory is reconstructive= it is not a perfect recording and can be altered  

  • What does suggestibility or suggestion mean with regard to memory and what kind of impact does it have on memory

    • Suggestibility is the tendency to incorporate misleading information into memory 

  • What does research show regarding the accuracy of eyewitness memory (e.g., the misinformation effect)

    • Eyewitness memory is prone to error, and the misinformation effect shows that post-event info can alter memories…

8.4 Ways to Enhance Memory (pp. 269-272)

  • What is the difference between elaborative rehearsal versus a mnemonic device or strategy

    • Elaborative rehearsal: connects new information to existing knowledge to make it meaningful; think about its meaning, relate to it with personal experiences, create associations with other concepts you already understand 

    • Mnemonic device/strategy: memory aids; aids memory retention and retrieval by creating associations between new info and existing knowledge or familiar concepts

  • Why does elaborative rehearsal contribute to better memory or more efficient studying

    • Elaborative rehearsal contributes to better memory or more efficient studying because it allows for more meaningful memory traces + stronger memory

  • What is the difference between distributed practice (or “spacing”) versus massed practice (or “cramming”) and which is more likely to result in long-term learning and memory

    • Distributed practice: (spacing) is studying over time [more effective]

    • Massed practice: (cramming) studying all at once 

  • What does research show about the use of highlighters for studying

    • Highlighters are not an effective study tool (can over-highlight), they should be combined with other active study techniques.