Revolution of 1800 and Jeffersonian Republic
The "Revolution of 1800"
By 1800, the Federalist Party was split, paving the way for the Democratic-Republicans' rise.
Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr ran for the Democratic-Republican nomination, receiving an equal number of Electoral College votes.
The Federalist-dominated House of Representatives had to choose between them.
After 35 ballots, Jefferson won after Alexander Hamilton supported him, despite their disagreements, because he considered Burr a dangerous man.
Burr later killed Hamilton, vindicating Hamilton's characterization of Burr.
The election was important for two reasons:
A president was saddled with an unwanted vice president for the second time, which was addressed by the Twelfth Amendment in 1804, allowing electors to vote for a party ticket.
The transfer of power from the Federalists to the Democratic-Republicans occurred without violence, which Jefferson called the "bloodless revolution," a feat that was practically unprecedented.
The Jeffersonian Republic (1800-1823)
The next two sections primarily review political history, followed by a review of social and economic history between 1800 and 1860.
Important socio-economic trends developed over several decades.
Economic and social conditions played a major role in bringing about the Civil War.
Jefferson's First Term
The transition of power was not friendly; Adams left the capital before Jefferson's inauguration to avoid attending.
Adams made numerous midnight appointments, filling government positions with Federalists.
Jefferson refused to recognize these appointments and replaced as many Federalist appointees as possible through dismissals, pressure to retire, and attrition.
By his second term, most public appointees were Democratic-Republicans.
Jefferson's refusal to accept Adams's midnight appointments led to lawsuits, including Marbury v. Madison (1803).
William Marbury sued Secretary of State James Madison for refusing to certify his appointment to the federal bench.
Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that Marbury had a right to his judgeship, but the Court could not enforce it.
The Judiciary Act of 1789, which gave the Supreme Court the authority to order federal appointees to deliver appointments, was deemed unconstitutional because Marshall believed it gave too much power to the judicial branch at the expense of Congress and the Presidency.
Marshall claimed the power of judicial review, the ability to declare congressional acts unconstitutional, for the Supreme Court.
Marshall strengthened the Court throughout his tenure.
The major accomplishment of Jefferson's first term was the Louisiana Purchase.
Spain gave New Orleans to the French in 1802, raising concerns about American trade along the Mississippi River.
Jefferson sent James Monroe to France to buy New Orleans for .
Napoleon, preparing for war in Europe and facing a slave revolt in Haiti, offered to sell the entire Louisiana Territory for .
The 1794 Pinckney Treaty gave the United States the right to trade in New Orleans.
In exchange, the United States acknowledged the boundary between Georgia and Spanish Florida.
Jefferson, who previously advocated for a strict interpretation of the Constitution, had to reconcile the purchase with the lack of explicit authorization in the Constitution.
He justified the purchase by claiming his presidential power to negotiate treaties with foreign nations.
New England Federalists opposed the purchase because they feared increased political power for Democratic western states.
They formed the Essex Junto and considered seceding from the United States but the plan never materialized.
Some Republicans, like John Randolph of Virginia, criticized Jefferson for violating Republican principles; this group became known as the Quids.
Jefferson sent explorers, including Lewis and Clark, to investigate the western territories.
Sacajawea, a Shoshoni guide, helped Lewis and Clark negotiate with Native American tribes along the Missouri River.
The explorers reported favorable conditions, leading pioneers to move westward in search of land and economic opportunities.
They also reported the presence of British and French forts with foreign troops.
In 1804, Jefferson won reelection in a landslide victory.
During the 1804 elections, Aaron Burr ran for governor of New York.
Alexander Hamilton campaigned against Burr.
When Burr lost, he accused Hamilton of sabotaging his political career and challenged him to a duel, in which he killed Hamilton.
Afterward, Burr fled to the Southwest, where he plotted to start his own nation in parts of the Louisiana Territory.
He was later captured and tried for treason but was acquitted because of a lack of evidence.
Jefferson's Second Term
Jefferson's second term was more challenging due to French-English disputes that led to the War of 1812.
In 1805, British and French blockades of each other's trade routes harmed the United States.
The British impressed American sailors, claiming they had deserted from the British navy.
Tensions escalated when a British frigate attacked an American ship in American waters.
Jefferson responded with a boycott, increasing military and naval appropriations.
The Embargo Act of 1807 shut down American import and export business, causing economic disaster, especially in New England, which relied on international trade and resorted to smuggling.
The Democratic-Republicans lost congressional seats in the 1808 elections because of the Embargo Act.
The Non-Intercourse Act of 1809 reopened trade with most nations except Britain and France.
Jefferson chose his secretary of state, James Madison, as his successor, who defeated the Federalists.
Madison's Presidency and the War of 1812
Madison sought to solve America's trade problems, and Congress responded with Macon's Bill No. 2, which promised to cut off trade with whichever country continued to harass American ships.
Napoleon promised to stop interfering with American trade, leading the United States to cut off trade with England, but France continued to harass American ships.
The British increased attacks on American ships.
Southern and Western War Hawks wanted war to gain new territories and Canada, led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun.
Madison asked Congress to declare war in 1812.
Effects of the War of 1812
Represented the Americans' ability to stop American expansion
The American economy, by necessity, became less reliant on trade with Britain
Made Andrew Jackson into a celebrity, paving the way to his presidency
The victory in New Orleans led to nationalistic fervor
The popularity of the war destroyed the Federalists who had opposed it, and taught Americans that objecting to going to war could ruin their careers.
Native Americans aligned with the British.
Tecumseh unified area tribes to stop American expansion into Indiana and Illinois.
The British armed Native Americans in these Western territories against new American settlers.
In the Battle of Tippecanoe, General William Henry Harrison defeated Tecumseh's coalition and found they had British weapons.
Tecumseh's brother, Tenskwatawa (The Prophet), led a revival of traditional Native American culture and religion.
Tecumseh's coalition fell apart after his death in battle.
American forces were ill-prepared, and the British captured Washington, D.C., in 1814, setting the White House on fire.
Most battles resulted in a stalemate.
The Treaty of Ghent was signed in Belgium on December 24, 1814.
Andrew Jackson won the Battle of New Orleans from January 8-18, 1815, unaware of the treaty.
Federalists met in Hartford, Connecticut, to discuss grievances and consider constitutional overhaul; they were labeled as traitors, and their party dissolved, although it continued to exert influence in some states.
The Hartford Convention proposed that a two-thirds majority of Congress should be required to pass any laws dealing with trade.
Proposed that a two-thirds majority be required to admit new states.
Included a provision that no president serve more than one seven year term.
Declared that two presidents in a row cannot come from the same state.
The United States became less dependent on imports as New England became America's manufacturing center during the war.
Madison promoted national growth, remaining true to Democratic-Republican principles.
He supported protective tariffs on imports, improvements to interstate roads (including expansion of the National Road from Maryland to Ohio), and the rechartering of the National Bank after its first charter expired (rechartered in 1816).
These programs were collectively known as the American System or Nationalist Program.
Henry Clay lobbied aggressively for them.
Monroe's Presidency
The demise of the Federalists led to the Era of Good Feelings, but economic development and sectionalism grew.
Chief Justice John Marshall's rulings strengthened the federal government.
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) ruled that states could not tax the National Bank, establishing the precedence of national law over state law and reaffirming the Supremacy Clause.
The Panic of 1819 caused economic turmoil, as the National Bank called in its loans, leading to widespread bankruptcies and poverty, but no nationally organized political opposition resulted, and Monroe won reelection in 1820.