AP Gov Unit 1 Chapter 2
Unit 1: Constitutional Underpinnings of the US Government
Chapter 2: The Constitution
Section 2.1: Roots of the US Constitution
Mercantilism: an economic theory designed to increase wealth through the development of commercial industry and a favorable trade balance
Stamp Act: a 1765 law passed by the British Parliament that forced American colonists to pay a direct tax on most printed paper, using official stamps as proof of payment
Common Sense: pamphlet written by Thomas Paine in 1775–1776 advocating independence from Great Britain to people in the Thirteen Colonies
Declaration of Independence: Document drafted largely by Thomas Jefferson in 1776 that proclaimed the right of American colonies to separate from great britain
social contract theory: the belief that governments exist based on the consent of the governed
political culture: the commonly held attitudes, behaviors, and core values about how government should operate
What was the issue that caused many people to argue for lowering the voting age and describe the circumstances that ultimately led it to becoming the 26th Amendment?
The Vietnam War led many people to argue that the voting age should be lowered. Young men as young as 18 could be drafted to fight and die in the war, but they could not vote. This created the argument: “If you are old enough to fight, you are old enough to vote.” In 1971, the 26th Amendment lowered the voting age from 21 to 18.
Before the 1760s how did Americans see themselves and what event began to change it? What way did it change, and who was responsible for initiating the shift?
Before the 1760s, most colonists primarily saw themselves as British citizens/subjects living in the American colonies. Their identity began changing after the French and Indian War, when Britain began imposing new taxes and regulations on the colonies. Colonists increasingly developed an American identity separate from Britain. Samuel Adams and other colonial leaders, especially through the Sons of Liberty and Committees of Correspondence, helped encourage this shift.
How is mercantilism supposed to make a country wealthy? What is an example of mercantilistic policies, real or imagined?
Mercantilism is an economic system in which a country tries to become wealthy by exporting more than it imports and accumulating valuable resources, especially gold and silver.
An example is Britain requiring the colonies to sell raw materials to Britain and buy British manufactured goods. The Navigation Acts also restricted colonial trade with other countries.
What policy changes did Britain make after the French and Indian War and what effect did this have on the colonies?
Britain had a large amount of war debt after the French and Indian War, so it began taxing and regulating the colonies more heavily.
Examples include:
Sugar Act
Stamp Act
Townshend Acts
Tea Act
Quartering Act
These policies angered colonists because they believed Britain was violating their rights, especially through taxation without representation. Resistance to British policies increased tensions and eventually contributed to the American Revolution.
What was the Stamp Act Congress and what beliefs did the attendants believe in?
The Stamp Act Congress met in New York in 1765 and included representatives from several colonies. They opposed the Stamp Act and argued that colonists could only be taxed by their own elected representatives.
Their central belief was essentially “no taxation without representation.” They believed they were entitled to the same rights as British citizens.
What actions did the American colonists, particularly the Bostonians, take that brought the US and Britain closer to war?
Colonists increasingly resisted British policies through protests, boycotts, and sometimes violence.
Important events included:
Boston Massacre (1770)
Boston Tea Party (1773)
Intolerable Acts/Coercive Acts (1774)
Colonial militias preparing for conflict
Battles of Lexington and Concord (1775)
These actions increased distrust between Britain and the colonies and eventually led to war.
Who attended the First Continental Congress and what was decided?
The First Continental Congress met in Philadelphia in 1774. Delegates from 12 of the 13 colonies attended; Georgia did not participate.
They:
Opposed the Intolerable Acts
Supported colonial rights
Agreed to boycott British goods
Sent a petition to King George III
Agreed to meet again if Britain did not address their concerns
They were still largely trying to resolve the conflict with Britain rather than immediately declare independence.
Who attended the Second Continental Congress and what was decided?
The Second Continental Congress included delegates from all 13 colonies. Important figures included George Washington, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and John Hancock.
The Congress:
Created the Continental Army
Chose George Washington as commander
Managed the Revolutionary War
Eventually decided to declare independence
Adopted the Declaration of Independence in 1776
What was the theme of Common Sense and what effect did this pamphlet have on the colonists?
Thomas Paine’s Common Sense argued that the colonies should completely separate from Britain and become an independent republic.
It was written in simple language that ordinary colonists could understand. It helped shift public opinion toward independence and encouraged colonists to support the Revolution.
What was the theme of the Declaration of Independence, how was it written, who wrote it, and describe the ideas the document is based on?
The Declaration of Independence announced that the colonies were separating from Britain.
It was primarily written by Thomas Jefferson, with assistance and editing from the committee and Continental Congress.
It was based heavily on John Locke’s ideas of natural rights and social contract theory. It argued that:
People have natural rights, including life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
The government gets its power from the consent of the governed.
If a government violates people’s rights, the people have the right to alter or abolish it.
What characteristics made up the political culture of the colonists and what actions did they take to codify these terms?
Colonial political culture emphasized:
Natural rights
Individual liberty
Popular sovereignty
Limited government
Republicanism
Consent of the governed
Colonists codified these ideas by creating state constitutions, declaring independence, and eventually creating the U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights.
Section 2.2: An Attempt at a National Government: The Articles of Confederation
Articles of Confederation: The original governing document of the United States. It formed a loose "league of friendship" where the federal congress lacked the power to tax, regulate trade, or enforce laws, because Americans feared a tyrannical central government like Great Britain's.
Critical Period: A term used by historians to describe the era of economic difficulty, political weakness, and social unrest under the Articles of Confederation before the adoption of the U.S. Constitution
Shay’s Rebellion: An armed uprising of indebted farmers and Revolutionary War veterans in western Massachusetts, led by Daniel Shays. They shut down courthouses to stop judges from seizing their land for unpaid taxes and debts. The federal government's inability to stop the rebellion proved the Articles of Confederation were too weak and led directly to the Constitutional Convention
What important powers did the national government have and not have under the Articles of Confederation?
The national government could:
Declare war
Make treaties
Conduct foreign affairs
Coin money
Borrow money
Establish a postal system
Settle disputes between states
The national government could not:
Directly tax citizens
Regulate interstate commerce
Create a strong executive branch
Create a national court system
Easily amend the Articles
The result was a very weak national government.
Identify and describe 5 reasons the Articles of Confederation was not successful.
No power to tax — Congress could request money from states but could not force them to pay.
No power to regulate trade — States could create their own trade policies, causing economic problems.
No executive branch — There was no president to enforce national laws.
No national judiciary — There was no federal court system to interpret national laws.
Difficult amendment process — All 13 states had to agree to amend the Articles.
Another major problem was that the national government depended heavily on the states for money and cooperation.
Describe the circumstances that led to Shay’s Rebellion, how it was put down, and the larger effect the rebellion had on Americans and the government.
Shays’ Rebellion began in 1786 when struggling Massachusetts farmers protested high taxes and debt. Many farmers were losing their land because they could not pay their debts.
The rebellion was eventually stopped by a privately funded militia because the national government under the Articles did not have enough power to respond effectively.
The rebellion frightened many Americans, especially wealthy leaders, because it showed that the national government was too weak to maintain order. It helped convince leaders that the Articles needed to be replaced with a stronger government.
Section 2.3: Writing the Constitution
Constitutional Convention:
Founding Fathers:
Constitution:
Virginia Plan:
New Jersey Plan:
Great Compromise:
Three-Fifths Compromise:
Electoral College:
When the Constitutional Convention was convened, why did Virginia’s delegates stand out from the rest early on?
Virginia’s delegates arrived with the Virginia Plan, largely developed by James Madison. Instead of simply fixing the Articles of Confederation, the plan proposed creating an entirely new and stronger national government.
Virginia’s delegation was therefore prepared with a detailed plan before many other delegates had developed one.
Identify and describe the various motives of the delegates to the Constitutional Convention.
Delegates wanted to:
Create a stronger national government
Fix economic problems
Create a government capable of raising revenue
Establish national authority over interstate commerce
Maintain order and stability
Protect property
Prevent another situation like Shays’ Rebellion
Protect their states’ interests
Resolve disagreements between large and small states
Protect slavery in states where it was economically important
Not every delegate had the same goals, which caused many disagreements.
What are the key features of the Virginia Plan? What are the key features of the New Jersey Plan?
Virginia Plan:
Strong national government
Three branches
Bicameral legislature
Representation based on population
National government could tax and regulate commerce
Favored large states
New Jersey Plan:
Kept a system similar to the Articles but strengthened it
One-house legislature
Equal representation for every state
Gave Congress additional powers, including taxation
Favored small states
Describe the Great Compromise.
The Great Compromise, also called the Connecticut Compromise, settled the disagreement between large and small states over representation.
Congress would have two chambers:
House of Representatives: representation based on population
Senate: every state gets 2 senators
This combined ideas from both the Virginia and New Jersey Plans.
What was the issue regarding slavery and describe the compromise reached to settle this debate?
The major issue was whether enslaved people would count toward a state’s population for representation and taxation.
The Three-Fifths Compromise said that every five enslaved people would be counted as three people for purposes of representation and direct taxation.
The Constitution also included compromises regarding the slave trade and fugitive slaves. Congress could not ban the importation of enslaved people until 1808.
Section 2.4: The US Constitution
Federalism:
separation of powers:
checks and balances:
enumerated powers:
necessary and proper clause:
implied powers:
inherent powers:
full faith and credit clause:
supremacy clause:
Describe the concept of federalism and how it is reflected in the Constitution.
Federalism is a system in which power is divided between a national government and state governments.
The Constitution gives certain powers to the federal government while leaving other powers to the states.
Examples:
Federal government: declaring war, regulating interstate commerce, printing money
State governments: education, driver’s licenses, local government
Some powers are shared, such as taxation.
Describe what the Framers borrowed from Montesquieu.
The Framers borrowed the idea of separation of powers from Baron de Montesquieu.
Montesquieu argued that government power should be divided among different branches so that no single person or group could become too powerful.
The Constitution therefore created:
Legislative Branch — makes laws
Executive Branch — enforces laws
Judicial Branch — interprets laws
Describe the key features of the separation of powers.
Separation of powers divides government authority among three branches:
The purpose is to prevent one branch from becoming too powerful.
How does the system of checks and balances work in the US system, providing examples for each branch of government?
Checks and balances allows each branch to limit the power of the other branches.
Congress can check the President by:
Overriding presidential vetoes
Controlling funding
Impeaching and removing officials
Approving treaties and appointments
President can check Congress by:
Vetoing legislation
Calling special sessions of Congress
Supreme Court can check Congress and the President by:
Declaring laws or executive actions unconstitutional through judicial review
Congress and the President can also influence the courts through appointments and confirmation processes.
Look at Table 2.1, what are 3 ways the Articles of Confederation and US Constitution are similar and 5 ways they are different.
Similarities:
Both created a republican form of government.
Both gave the national government powers involving foreign affairs and defense.
Both recognized the existence and importance of state governments.
Differences:
How is the Constitution organized, in general and specifically?
The Constitution begins with the Preamble, which explains its purposes.
It is then divided into seven Articles:
Article I — Legislative Branch
Article II — Executive Branch
Article III — Judicial Branch
Article IV — Relations among states
Article V — Amendment process
Article VI — Federal supremacy and obligations
Article VII — Ratification
The Constitution also includes amendments, which change or add to the document.
As the Constitution was being considered by the states, what issues were the early Americans most concerned with in the document?
Americans were especially concerned about:
Whether the national government would become too powerful
Protection of individual rights
The balance between state and federal power
Taxation
Representation
The power of the president
The lack of a Bill of Rights
Slavery
These disagreements led to the debate between Federalists and Anti-Federalists.
Section 2.5: Ratifying the US Constitution
Ratify:
Federalists:
Anti-Federalists:
The Federalist Papers:
Bill of Rights:
How did two political parties emerge from ratification and what issues did they believe in?
The debate over ratification eventually contributed to the development of two major political groups.
Federalists:
Supported a strong national government
Supported the Constitution
Favored economic stability and national unity
Included leaders such as Alexander Hamilton and James Madison
Anti-Federalists:
Feared a powerful national government
Wanted stronger state governments
Worried the president could become too powerful
Wanted a Bill of Rights
Included leaders such as Patrick Henry and George Mason
What are The Federalist Papers, who wrote them, what is their function (then and now), and what was the main argument of these documents?
The Federalist Papers were a series of essays written to convince New Yorkers to ratify the Constitution.
They were written by:
Alexander Hamilton
James Madison
John Jay
At the time, they explained and defended the Constitution. Today, they are important because they help historians and courts understand how some of the Framers interpreted the Constitution.
Their main argument was that the Constitution would create a strong but limited national government capable of maintaining order while protecting liberty.
Describe the main issues against ratification, as represented by the Anti-Federalists.
Anti-Federalists believed:
The national government would become too powerful.
The president might become too much like a king.
Congress could abuse its taxing powers.
The federal courts could threaten state authority.
The Constitution did not sufficiently protect individual rights.
States would lose too much power.
Ordinary citizens might have too little influence over the national government.
Their strongest demand was for a Bill of Rights.
What was the first act of the First Congress and why was this the case?
One of the first major actions of the First Congress was proposing the Bill of Rights.
This was done largely because several states had demanded protections for individual liberties during the ratification debate. Adding amendments protecting individual rights helped reassure Anti-Federalists and strengthen support for the new Constitution.
Section 2.6: Toward Reform: Methods of Amending the US Constitution
Amend:
Describe how the Constitution can be amended formally.
There are two steps:
Step 1 — Proposal
An amendment can be proposed by:
2/3 of both houses of Congress, OR
A constitutional convention called by 2/3 of state legislatures
Step 2 — Ratification
The amendment must then be ratified by:
3/4 of state legislatures, OR
3/4 of state conventions
The second method has only been used once, for the 21st Amendment.
How can it be said that the Constitution can be changed informally as well as formally?
The Constitution can change without adding a formal amendment.
This happens when the meaning or application of the Constitution changes through:
Supreme Court decisions
Presidential actions
Congressional legislation
Political practices and customs
Changes in how the government interprets constitutional powers
For example, the Supreme Court’s interpretation of constitutional powers can change how the Constitution operates in practice.
Describe the ways the Constitution has been informally amended, providing an example of each.
Judicial interpretation
The Supreme Court can interpret the Constitution in new ways.Example: Marbury v. Madison established judicial review, giving courts the power to declare laws unconstitutional.
Congressional legislation
Congress can pass laws that establish how constitutional powers will be used.Example: Congress created federal departments and courts to carry out responsibilities under the Constitution.
Presidential action
Presidents can establish practices that influence how executive power is used.Example: Presidents have developed the use of executive agreements in foreign affairs.
Political parties and practices
Political parties and traditions can change how the government operates without changing the actual constitutional text.Example: The development of political parties was not specifically described in the Constitution, but parties became an important part of how the government functions.
Changing political/economic circumstances
New situations can cause the government to interpret existing constitutional powers differently.Example: The federal government’s role in the economy has expanded as the country has developed and new economic problems have emerged.