psych vocab

  1. Curiosity- A passion to explore and understand without misleading or being misled.

  2. Skepticism- A questioning attitude that challenges claims and demands evidence before acceptance.

  3. Humility- An awareness of our own vulnerability to error and an openness to new perspectives.

  4. Critical Thinking- The process of thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions but instead examines assumptions, assesses sources, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

  5. Questioning- The active process of inquiry and challenging assumptions, a key component of skepticism and critical thinking.

  6. Argumentation- The process of developing and defending a claim using evidence and reasoning.

  1. Hindsight Bias- The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (also known as the "I-knew-it-all-along" phenomenon).

  2. Overconfidence- The tendency to be more confident than correct; to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

  3. Perceiving Order in Random Events- The natural human tendency to find patterns or meaning in random sequences, even when there are none.

  1. Scientific Method- A self-correcting process for evaluating ideas with observation and analysis.

  2. Theory- A well-developed explanation that integrates principles, organizes observations, and predicts behaviors or events.

  3. Hypothesis- A testable prediction, often implied by a theory, specifying the relationship between variables.

  4. Falsifiable- The quality of a good theory or hypothesis, meaning it is possible to design an experiment that could prove it to be incorrect.

  5. Replicate (Replication)- Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants and situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

  6. Operational Definition- A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study to measure a variable (e.g., "intelligence" is operationally defined as the score on an IQ test).

  7. Population- All the individuals in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

  8. Variables- Any factor or characteristic that can change or vary.

  9. Predict- To estimate that a specific thing will happen in the future, a key goal of correlational research.

  10. Theoretical Principles- The underlying concepts and ideas that form the foundation of a theory.

  11. Superforecaster- An individual who consistently and accurately predicts future events at a much higher rate than average people or experts.

  12. Qualitative Research- Research that gathers non-numerical data (like interviews or observations) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences.

  13. Quantitative Research- Research that collects and reports data primarily in numerical form, allowing for statistical analysis.

  14. Non-experimental Research- Methods (like case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation) that describe behaviors but do not manipulate variables to determine cause-and-effect.

  15. Experimental Research- A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable).

  16. Naturalistic Observation- A descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulation.

  17. Correlational Research- A method used to measure the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

  18. Case Study- A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

  19. Longitudinal Study- Research that follows and retests the same group of people over a long period.

  20. Cross-sectional Study- Research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.

  21. Twin Study- A study comparing the similarities between identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins to explore the influence of heredity and environment.

  22. Meta-analysis- A statistical procedure for analyzing and combining the results of many different research studies on the same topic to determine the overall trend.

  23. Survey- A descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample.

  24. Interview- A data-collection method where a researcher asks questions directly to a participant.

  25. Structured Interview- An interview where the questions are predetermined and asked in a specific, fixed order.

  1. Representative Sample- A sample that accurately reflects the demographic characteristics of the larger population it is drawn from.

  2. Random Sample- A sample in which every person in the entire population has an equal chance of being selected.

  3. Convenience Sampling- A sample chosen from a group that is easy to contact or reach; it is often not representative of the whole population.

  4. Social Desirability Bias- The tendency for survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.

  5. Self-report Bias- Any tendency for participants to inaccurately report their own thoughts, feelings, or behaviors.

  6. Likert Scale- A rating scale where respondents specify their level of agreement or disagreement with a series of statements.

  7. Experiment- The only research method that can establish a cause-and-effect relationship.

  8. Experimental Group- The group in an experiment that is exposed to the treatment (one version of the independent variable).

  9. Control Group- The group in an experiment that is not exposed to the treatment; it serves as a comparison.

  10. Random Assignment- Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, minimizing preexisting differences between them.

  11. Independent Variable (IV)- The factor that is manipulated or changed by the experimenter; the variable whose effect is being studied.

  12. Dependent Variable (DV)- The outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.

  13. Confounding Variable- A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

  14. Placebo- An inert substance or condition that is given to the control group.

  15. Placebo Effect- Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance that the recipient assumes is an active agent.

  16. Single-blind Procedure- An experimental procedure where the participants are ignorant ("blind") about whether they have received the treatment or a placebo.

  17. Double-blind Procedure- An experimental procedure where both the participants and the research staff are ignorant ("blind") about who has received the treatment or a placebo.

  18. Experimental Bias- The tendency for a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study to influence the results.

  19. Validity- The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

  1. Correlation- A measure of the relationship between two variables. Correlation does not prove causation!

  2. Correlation Coefficient- A statistical index of the relationship between two variables, ranging from -1.00 to +1.00.

  3. Positive Correlation- A relationship where two variables tend to rise or fall together (e.g., as study time increases, grades increase).

  4. Negative Correlation- A relationship where as one variable increases, the other decreases (e.g., as TV viewing time increases, grades decrease).

  5. No Correlation- When two variables have no relationship, indicated by a correlation coefficient near 0.

  6. Scatterplot- A graphed cluster of dots, each representing the values of two variables, used to visualize a correlation.

  1. Directionality Problem- In a correlation, the inability to know which variable caused the other.

  2. Third Variable Problem- When an unobserved third variable affects both observed variables, creating a spurious correlation.

  3. Illusory Correlation- Perceiving a relationship between variables where none exists.

  4. Regression Toward the Mean- The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average.

  1. Descriptive Statistics- Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups (e.g., mean, median, mode, standard deviation).

  2. Inferential Statistics- Numerical data that allow one to generalize—to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population.

  3. Histogram- A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution.

  4. Mean- The arithmetic average of a distribution.

  5. Median- The middle score in a distribution.

  6. Mode- The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

  7. Range- The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

  8. Standard Deviation- A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean.

  9. Variation- How similar or diverse the scores in a distribution are.

  10. Skewed Distribution- A representation of scores that lacks symmetry around their average value.

  11. Normal Curve (Bell-Shaped Curve)- A symmetrical curve that describes the distribution of many types of data, where most scores fall near the mean.

  12. Percentile Rank- The percentage of scores in a distribution that are equal to or lower than a particular score.

  13. Statistically Significant- A statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance. A result is typically considered significant if the probability of it occurring by chance is less than 5% (p<.05).

  14. Effect Size- A measure of the magnitude or strength of a phenomenon (e.g., the difference between two groups or the strength of a relationship).

  15. Null Hypothesis (H0​)- The hypothesis that there is no significant difference or relationship between variables. Researchers aim to reject the null hypothesis.

  16. Alternative Hypothesis (H1​)- The hypothesis that a significant difference or relationship does exist between variables.

  17. Alpha Level (p-value)- The probability threshold for statistical significance. The p-value represents the probability that the observed results occurred by chance alone.

  18. Confidence Interval- A range of values within which a population parameter is estimated to lie, with a certain degree of confidence.

  1. Peer Reviewers- Experts in a field who evaluate the quality and validity of research before it is published.

  2. Informed Consent- The ethical principle that research participants must be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

  3. Debriefing- The post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

  4. Do No Harm- The fundamental ethical principle to protect participants from any lasting physical or psychological harm.

  5. Confidentiality- The ethical principle of keeping participants' personal information private.

  6. Institutional Review Board (IRB)- A committee at a research institution that reviews and approves research proposals to ensure they are ethical.