ch4 reinforcement p1

Chapter 4: Reinforcement

Quick Overview

  • Reinforcement

  • Positive Reinforcement

  • Negative Reinforcement

  • Primary & Secondary Reinforcers

  • Factors that Influence Reinforcement

  • Schedules of Reinforcement

I. Reinforcement

  • Definition:

    • A basic principle of behavior.

    • Established by B.F. Skinner through laboratory research and over 40 years of human research.

    • A key element in many behavior modification procedures.

Defining Reinforcement

  1. The occurrence of a behavior

  2. Results immediately in a consequence

  3. The behavior is strengthened

    • This means it is more likely to occur again in the future under similar circumstances.

    • Functional definition:

      • Present: Behavior is followed by a consequence.

      • Future: Behavior is more likely to occur again.

Effects of Reinforcement on Behavior

  • Increases in

    • Frequency

    • Duration

    • Intensity

    • Quickness (decrease in latency)

II. Operant Behavior

  • Definition:

    • Behavior strengthened through the process of reinforcement.

    • Behavior is controlled by its consequences.

What is a Reinforcer?

  • Definition:

    • The consequence (stimulus or event) that follows operant behavior and strengthens it.

Two Types of Reinforcement

  1. Positive Reinforcement

  2. Negative Reinforcement

    • Both types strengthen behavior, making it more likely to occur in the future.

III. What is Positive Reinforcement?

  • Definition:

    • Behavior is followed by the presentation of a stimulus (a reinforcer) that strengthens the behavior.

  • Reinforcement:

    • A procedure providing consequences for a behavior that increases or maintains the strength of that behavior.

  • Positive Reinforcement/Reward Training:

    • A reinforcement procedure where a behavior is followed by the presentation or an increase in the intensity of a stimulus.

  • Positive Reinforcer:

    • Any stimulus that, when presented following a behavior, increases or maintains that behavior.

IV. What is Negative Reinforcement?

  • Definition:

    • Behavior is followed by the removal of a stimulus (a punisher or aversive stimulus), thereby strengthening the behavior.

  • Negative Reinforcement/Escape Training:

    • A reinforcement procedure where a behavior leads to the removal or decrease in intensity of a stimulus.

  • Negative Reinforcer:

    • Any stimulus that, when removed following a behavior, increases or maintains the strength of that behavior.

Escape and Avoidance Behaviors

  • Involved in negative reinforcement.

  • Escape:

    • Behavior results in the termination of the aversive stimulus, strengthening the behavior.

  • Avoidance:

    • Behavior results in the prevention of the aversive stimulus, strengthening the behavior.

Everyday Examples of Negative Reinforcement

  • Turn the channel during a bad TV show.

  • Put on a coat on a cold day.

  • Use an umbrella.

  • Slap a mosquito.

  • Turn up the heat.

  • Roll up the window when it rains.

  • Wear earplugs on a noisy job.

  • Turn down the lights, TV, stereo.

  • Turn on the exhaust fan.

  • Loosen a tight collar or tie.

  • Turn off the alarm buzzer.

  • Give in to a screaming kid.

  • Tell someone to be quiet in a movie.

Positive and Negative Reinforcement in the Same Situation

  • Example: Tantrum in a grocery store

    • Child’s tantrum behavior is strengthened by getting candy from a parent (Positive Reinforcement).

    • Parent’s behavior of giving candy to the child is strengthened by termination of the tantrum (Negative Reinforcement).

V. Primary & Secondary Reinforcers

  • Primary Reinforcers:

    • Reinforcers that are not dependent on another reinforcer for their reinforcing properties.

  • Secondary Reinforcers/Conditioned Reinforcers:

    • Reinforcers that acquire their reinforcing properties through association with other reinforcers.

  • Generalized Reinforcers:

    • Secondary reinforcers that have been paired with several different reinforcers.

Unconditioned (Primary) Reinforcers

  • Biologically determined and have survival value.

  • Examples include:

    • Food

    • Water

    • Human contact (warmth)

    • Oxygen

    • Sexual contact

    • Escape from cold, heat, pain, extreme levels of stimulation.

Conditioned (Secondary) Reinforcers

  • Definition:

    • A previously neutral stimulus that, when paired repeatedly with an established reinforcer, will function as a reinforcer.

  • Examples of Conditioned Reinforcers:

    • Sight, sound, and scent of parents

    • Parents’ smile, tone of voice, attention, praise

    • Types of toys, TV shows, music, clothes, activities

    • Grades, positive evaluations

    • Accomplishments (social, physical)

    • Money

    • Others

Conditioned Generalized Reinforcers

  • Definition:

    • Paired with a wide variety of other reinforcers.

  • Examples:

    • Money

    • Praise

    • Tokens

VI. Factors that Influence Reinforcement

  • Immediacy:

    • Timeliness of the reinforcer.

  • Consistency (Contingency):

    • Dependency between events.

    • Can be stimulus-contingent (dependent on stimulus) or response-contingent (dependent on behavior).

  • Establishing Operations:

    • Conditions that affect the value of a reinforcer.

  • Individual Differences:

    • Different reinforcement effects on different individuals.

  • Intensity of the Stimulus:

    • More intense stimuli may lead to quicker reinforcement learning.

Contingency and Contiguity

  • Contingency:

    • A dependency between events, where an event may be stimulus-contingent or response-contingent.

  • Contiguity:

    • The nearness of events in time (temporal contiguity) or space (spatial contiguity).

Reinforcer Characteristics

  • Characteristics of the reinforcer that may influence its effectiveness.

Task Characteristics

  • Complexity and nature of the task may influence reinforcement.

Deprivation Level

  • How deprived an individual is of a certain reinforcer affects its strength.

VII. Schedules of Reinforcement

  • Definition:

    • A rule describing the delivery of reinforcers for a behavior.

  • Schedule Effects:

    • The distinctive rate and pattern of responding associated with a particular reinforcement schedule.

Types of Reinforcement Schedules

  1. Continuous Reinforcement Schedule:

    • A behavior is reinforced each time it occurs.

    • Symbol: FR1 = 1 ext{ behavior} : 1 ext{ reinforcer}

  2. Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement Schedule:

    • Any of several schedules where a behavior is sometimes reinforced (opposite of continuous schedule).

Specific Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed Ratio Schedules

  • Definition:

    • Reinforcer is delivered after a fixed number of responses.

  • Effects:

    • Produces high response rate with a post-reinforcement pause.

  • Examples:

    • Piece rate pay, classroom uses.

Variable Ratio Schedules

  • Definition:

    • Reinforcer is delivered after an average number of responses, but the actual number varies.

  • Effects:

    • Produces high rate of response with no post-reinforcement pause.

  • Examples:

    • Slot machines, phone solicitors.

    • Compulsive gambling associated with VR schedules due to addictive nature.

Fixed Interval Schedules

  • Definition:

    • Reinforcer for the first response after a fixed amount of time.

  • Effects:

    • Produces low response rate initially, which increases as the interval nears completion.

  • Rarely used in behavior modification.

  • Examples:

    • Mail delivery every 2 hours, hourly checks by a supervisor.

Variable Interval Schedules

  • Definition:

    • Reinforcer for the first response after varying amounts of time, based on an average.

  • Effects:

    • Produces low but steady rate of behavior.

  • Rarely used in behavior modification.

  • Examples:

    • Unpredictable supervisor checks, checking for emails or messages.

Graphical Representation of Schedules of Reinforcement

  • Various reinforcement schedules show distinct patterns and rates of delivery of reinforcement leading to different behavioral outcomes.

Consolidation of Reinforcement Schedule Types

  • Fixed Ratio (FR): Reinforcement after fixed number of behaviors.

  • Variable Ratio (VR): Reinforcement after average number of behaviors.

  • Fixed Interval (FI): Reinforcement after a fixed time.

  • Variable Interval (VI): Reinforcement after an average time.

Conclusion

  • Understanding reinforcement, its types, and its schedules is crucial in the study of behavioral psychology and modification practices, revealing insights into how behaviors can be shaped and maintained over time.