Comprehensive Notes on Nigerian History and Political Evolution

Introduction to Pre-Colonial Nigerian Political Systems

• Before the advent of British colonialism, the area known today as Nigeria was comprised of numerous independent ethnic nationalities.

• These nationalities possessed distinct political systems of administration.

• The major ethnic groups studied in pre-colonial political times include the Hausa/Fulani, the Yoruba, and the Igbo.

• Each of these groups had well-structured systems of governance established prior to the arrival of Europeans.

The Hausa-Fulani Pre-Colonial Political System

• Geographic Focus: The Hausa/Fulani ethnic group is primarily situated in the Northern part of Nigeria.

• Historical Foundation:

  • The Hausa Kingdoms were nominally Muslim but eventually regressed into semi-paganistic lifestyles (Akamera, $2001:123$).

  • The traditional Hausa administration was replaced by the Fulani system following the Jihad of $1804$, led by Uthman Dan Fodio.

  • The Holy War (Jihad) resulted in the purification and restoration of Islamic religion and the establishment of the Emirate System.

• Administrative Structure:

  • The Caliphate: Divided into two administrative sections following the Emirate System introduction.

    • Eastern Section: Capital at Sokoto.

    • Western Section: Capital at Gwandu.

  • Leadership: Each section was headed by an Emir, assisted by a hierarchy of officials.

  • Level of Centralization: The system was highly centralized and well-structured, with power flowing from the top (Emir) to the bottom.

  • Sub-divisions: Each Emirate was divided into Districts (overseen by District Heads) and Villages (overseen by Village Heads). Both levels paid allegiance to the Emir.

• Legal Basis: Administration was based on Islamic laws (Sharia) as contained in the Holy Quran. The Emir and officials exercised power according to these laws.

• Palace Officials and Portfolios:

  • The Emir was very powerful and highly respected, supported by a council of advisers.

  • Sarkin Fada: The organizer of palace workers.

  • Galadima: The administrator of the capital territory.

  • Waziri: The Emir’s prime minister and chief adviser.

  • Madawaki: The commander-in-chief of the armed forces (Obikeze and Anthony, $2003:4$).

Hausaland Before the Growth of the State System

• The Kauye: Before city-states emerged, people lived in small agricultural settlements known as "Kauye" (hamlets, villages, or collections of compounds).

• Social Identity: Based on groups of families with strong kinship relationships.

• Authority in the Kauye:

  • Sarkin Numa: Literally "King of the farmers." This individual was responsible for regulating farming activities, as the settlement was primarily agricultural.

  • Maigida: The "head of house" or family head who decided on matters affecting the family unit and relations.

Evolution of Towns and States in Hausaland

• Developmental Progression: Kauye (small settlement) → Garraruwa (large villages/towns; singular: Gari) → Birane (city-states; singular: Birni).

• Factors Favoring Urbanization:

  • Fertile Land: Encouraged large settlements (e.g., Kano, Zaria, and Katsina).

  • Trade Routes: Strategic placement facilitated commerce and introduced wealth and new people.

  • Iron Technology: The availability of Iron-Ore and technology (e.g., Dala Hills and Dutse in Kano) provided incentives for clustering.

  • Topographical Features: Hills and valleys with religious significance (like Dala in Kano) attracted settlers.

• Characteristics of the Birni:

  • Walled or stockaded towns containing self-sufficient communities.

  • Included trade, industry, and large areas of land for cultivation.

• State Formation: Formed when one Birni secured the acknowledgment of surrounding Kauye and other Birane.

• Sarki: The head shifted from a village chief to a city chief with an elaborate court and official hierarchy.

Social Classification Among the Hausa

• Early Period: Initially, there was no distinct class division.

• Post-Urbanization Classes:

  • Masu Sarauta (The Ruling Class): Divided into:

    • The hereditary ruling class.

    • The non-hereditary ruling class (deserving commoners).

    • Palace officials (often ex-slaves) belonged to this tier.

  • Talakawa: Commoners, positioned below the ruling classes.

  • Slaves: Formed the bottom of the social structure.

• Social Mobility: Inter-class mobility was generally difficult, though outstanding military service could facilitate movement.

Economic Organization in Pre-Colonial Hausaland

• Agriculture: Produced staples such as millet, guinea corn, beans, potatoes, tomatoes, and vegetables.

• Animal Husbandry: Tending goats, cows, sheep, and poultry.

• Trade:

  • Benefited from trade routes spanning Western and Central Sudan.

  • Maintained relations with Kanem-Borno, Ghana, Mali, and Songhai.

  • Trade with forest states: Exchanged hides and skins for kola nuts and southern products.

• Crafts: Metalworking, woodcraft, dyes, and decorated calabashes.

• Taxation System:

  • Jingali: Cattle tax.

  • Gandu: Tax levied on conquered areas.

  • Kharayin: Land tax.

  • General taxes on indigenous and foreign traders.

Islamic Revivalism (The Jihad of 1804)

• Leadership: Usman Dan Fodio, a learned Fulani scholar.

• Target: The Habe (Hausa) kings.

• Concept of Jihad: A holy war to convert "pagan" societies into Dar al-Islam (Islamic society).

• Reasons for the Jihad:

  • Corruption of government officials.

  • Un-Islamic practices of Habe kings who often tolerated paganism despite claiming to be Muslim.

  • Illegal and overburdened taxation, particularly affecting minority Fulani elements.

• Timeline: Began in $1804$; major fighting ended in $1809$, but emirate establishment continued through the first half of the $19^{th}$ century.

• Reasons for Success:

  • Weakness and disunity among Hausa states.

  • Mass population support for the jihadists.

  • Superior military tactics and zeal.

  • Strong organizational ability of the leadership.

• Effects of the Jihad:

  • Establishment of the Sokoto Caliphate (Capitals: Sokoto and Gwandu).

  • Unification of Hausa states into Emirates under the Caliph.

  • Change of title from King to Emir.

  • Deeper Islamization of the society.

Characteristics of the Fulani

• Unique Status: Believed to be the only ethnic group in Africa without a distinct territory of their own; originated from Futa Jalon highlands.

• Types of Fulani:

  1. Cattle Fulani: Nomadic, simple life, moving in search of water/grazing; often combined paganism with Islam.

  2. Town Fulani (Settled Fulani): Lived in conquered towns; functioned as administrators and cultivators; more devout Muslims.

• Hausa-Fulani Integration: Significant intermarriage has occurred, lead to a unified Hausa-Fulani culture in modern times.

The Yoruba Political System (Oyo Empire)

• Geographic Focus: Western part of Nigeria.

• Core Entity: The Oyo Empire served as the nucleus of Yoruba political administration.

• Central Administration:

  • The Alaafin of Oyo: The head of the system, exercising religious, political, and judicial authority.

  • The Oyomesi: A council of $7$ hereditary kingmakers who advised the Alaafin and selected his successor. They were headed by the Bashorun (chief minister/spokesman).

• Checks and Balances:

  • The Alaafin was not autocratic; the Oyomesi could depose him.

  • Rejection Ritual: If the Oyomesi sent an empty calabash to the Alaafin, it symbolized rejection and compelled him to commit suicide.

  • Counter-Check: To prevent abuse of power, a member of the Oyomesi council was required to die with the Alaafin.

• Local Government: Provincial and village governments were headed by Obas and Bales. These units were highly autonomous but paid tribute to the Alaafin.

The Igbo Political System

• Geographic Focus: Eastern flank of Nigeria.

• Political Nature: Decentralized, fragmented, and "acephalous" (headless/without a single central ruler).

• The Village: The central unit of political, economic, and social life.

• Governance Entities:

  • Village Assembly (Oha-na-eze): Composed of all adult males, practicing direct democracy similar to Ancient Greece.

  • Council of Elders: Coordinated activities and directed the assembly.

  • Title Holders: Included the Ozo and Ofo title holders; seen as custodians of culture.

  • Age Grades: Responsible for implementing decisions reached in the assembly under elder guidance.

• Decision Making: Issues were resolved through consensus; no central authority wielded total power.

Evolution of Nigeria as a Political Unit

• Timeline:

  • Independence: October $1$, $1960$.

  • Became a Republic: October $1$, $1963$.

• British Influence:

  • Initial contact: Commercial lines.

  • Berlin Conference ($1884$/$1885$): European scramble and partition of Africa placed Nigeria under the British sphere of influence.

• The Nature of Creation: Scholars argue Nigeria is an "artificial creation" by the British for pragmatic economic and political reasons, rather than cultural unity.

• Native Foundations: Evidence suggests internal interactions (social, economic, political) were already facilitating a form of evolution before the British arrival.

The Amalgamation Processes

• The Name "Nigeria": Coined by Flora Shaw (wife of Frederick Lugard); originally applied to the Northern Protectorate.

• Key Organizations:

  • United Africa Company (UAC).

  • Chartered Royal Niger Company: Administered Northern Nigeria on behalf of Britain until $1900$.

• Stages of Amalgamation:

  1. $1900$: Integration of the Niger Coast Protectorate with the Colony of Lagos to form the Protectorate of Southern Nigeria.

  2. $1906$: The Colony of Lagos merged with the Protectorate of Southern Nigeria to form the Colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria.

  3. January $1$, $1914$: Amalgamation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria and the Colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria by Frederick Lugard to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria.

• Reasons for Amalgamation:

  • Imperial interest: cheap raw materials for British industries.

  • Market for British manufactured goods.

  • Capital resources for investment in Britain.

  • Manpower reserve for military purposes.

  • Control of ports, waterways, and transportation/communication systems.

Colonial Administration and Indirect Rule

• Adoption of Indirect Rule: British governed through local traditional rulers.

• Reasons for Indirect Rule:

  • Manpower Shortage: British administrators avoided Nigeria due to malaria and mosquitoes.

  • Economy: Cost-effective extraction and exploitation.

  • Precedent: Successfully applied in India and Uganda.

  • Cultural Preservation: Retaining institutions to suit colonial aims.

  • Language Barrier: Using rulers as intermediaries.

• Regional Implementation Variations:

  • North: Highly successful due to the existing centralized Emirate system.

  • West: Less successful. The British reenacted empires ($1916$); Obas became autocratic as traditional checks were removed. Resistance occurred in Iseyin ($1916$) and Abeokuta ($1918$).

  • East: Challenging due to absence of centralized chiefs. The British created Warrant Chiefs, who were often corrupt and lacked legitimacy.

• Consequences of Indirect Rule:

  • Resistance led to events like the $1929$ Aba Riots due to tax abuse and bad governance.

  • Resistant rulers were deposed and replaced with "pliant" ones.

  • Status of the Caliph (Sokoto) and Shehu (Borno) reduced to Emirs; Caliph renamed Sultan.

  • Sharia courts subordinated to customary and common law courts.

Constitutional Development in Nigeria

• Definition: A constitution defines how a state is governed, the relationship between rulers and the ruled, and the rights of citizens.

• Constitutionalism: The principle that government must rule according to the constitution.

• Constitutional Timeline:

  • $1914$: The Nigerian Council (Lord Lugard).

  • $1922$: Clifford Constitution (Dissolved the Nigerian Council).

  • $1946$: Richard Constitution (Introduced regionalism: East, West, North).

  • $1951$: Macpherson Constitution (Quasi-federal model; shared power but central control).

  • $1954$: Lyttleton Constitution (Established a full federal system).

  • $1957$/$1958$: Constitutional conferences regarding self-government and minority issues.

  • $1960$: Independence Constitution.

  • $1963$: Republican Constitution.

  • $1979$: Presidential Constitution.

  • $1999$: Amended Presidential Constitution (based on the $1979$ version).

Post-Independence Development and Military Rule

• Post-$1960$ Issues: Ethnic distrust and competition for political/economic power.

• First Republic Crises: Minorities questions, Action Group party split in the West, census controversy ($1962$-$1964$), and electoral malpractices ($1964$/$1965$).

• "Operation Wetie": Violent instability in the Western region.

• Military Intervention Timeline:

  • January $1966$: First coup led by Major Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu. Assassinated PM Tafawa Balewa, Ahmadu Bello, and Samuel Akintola. Major-General Aguiyi Ironsi took over.

  • July $29$, $1966$: Counter-coup. Ironsi and Fajuyi killed. Lt. Col. Yakubu Gowon took power on August $1$, $1966$.

  • $1967$-$1970$ Civil War: Gowon created a $12$-state structure on May $27$, $1967$. Lt. Col. Odumegwu Ojukwu declared the Republic of Biafra on May $29$, $1967$.

  • $1975$: Gowon ousted by General Murtala Mohammed due to corruption and insensitivity.

  • $1976$: Murtala assassinated (Dimka coup). He had purged the public service and created $19$ states. Lt. Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo took over and handed power to civilians in $1979$.

  • $1979$ Elections: Won by Shehu Shagari (NPN). Other parties: UPN, NPP, PRP, GNPP.

  • $1983$: Shagari ousted by Major-General Muhammadu Buhari.

  • $1985$: Buhari overthrown by General Ibrahim Babangida.

  • Babangida Era: Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP); Annulment of June $12$, $1993$ election (won by M.K.O. Abiola vs. Bashir Tofa).

  • $1993$ (Interim): Chief Ernest Shonekan. Sacked by General Sani Abacha on November $17$, $1993$.

  • Abacha Era ($1993$-$1998$): Harshest human rights record; execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa ($1995$); detention of Abiola and Obasanjo.

  • $1998$: Abacha died (June $8$); Abiola died (July $8$). Major General Abdusalami Abubakar took over and returned Nigeria to democracy.

  • $1999$: Fourth Republic began. Olusegun Obasanjo (PDP) elected President; Atiku Abubakar as VP.

Modern Political Challenges

• Rising ethnic and religious conflicts.

• Militant Groups: Odua’s People Congress (OPC), Egbesu Boys, Arewa People Congress (APC).

• Ethnic Interest Groups: Arewa Consultative Forum, Afenifere, Ohaneze N’digbo.

• Issues with acquisitive and selfish conduct among elected officials.