Research Methods

Paradigms in Research

  • Positivism - There is a single reality or truth (more realist), can be measured

  • Subjectivism - All knowledge is purely a matter of perspective.

  • Critical - Realities are socially constructed entities under constant internal influence.


Types of Qualitative Research 

  • Ethnography - understand the culture of a particular group from the perspective of the group members.

  • Case Study

  • Grounded Theory - Aims to generate theory from data, rather than just impose theory on data (explanations)

  • Phenomenology - distill the phenomenon down to its core meaning or essence.


Thematic Analysis

minimally organizes and describes the data collected in rich detail by identifying, analyzing, interpreting, and reporting patterns.


Rigor in Qualitative Research

Qualitative data popularity increased so issues arise, like:

  • Member checking - results are shared with the participants to check accuracy.

  • Inter-rater reliability - are results reliable enough to be reproduced

  • Universal criteria - Checks research rigour (Worthy Topic, Rich Rigor, Sincerity, Credibility etc)


Population vs. Sample

  • Population: The entire group under study (e.g people aged 30 or older)

  • Sample: A subset of the population that should be representative of it.


Sample Size 

  • The sample should be “just large enough” – not so big that resources are wasted, but not too small to miss subtle differences. 

  • Estimation tools (like Jamovi and G*Power) help determine the appropriate sample size.


Types of Sampling Methods

  • Probability Sampling (aims for random selection):

    • Simple Random Sampling: Every member has an equal chance; ideal but sometimes impractical.

    • Systematic Sampling: Starts with a random selection followed by a fixed interval (requires careful planning to avoid clustering).

    • Stratified Sampling: The sample reflects population proportions across different groups (e.g., gender ratios).

    • Cluster Sampling: Samples are taken from groups or clusters (useful for geographically dispersed populations).

Power and Effect Sizes

  • Power of a Study: The likelihood of detecting a true effect. 

  • An underpowered study can lead to a Type II error (accepting the null hypothesis when it is false).

  • Smaller effect sizes require larger sample sizes to be detected reliably 


Mixed Methods Research

  • = mix of qualitative and quantitative research

  •  designing for integration both types, not just adding methods together.

Basic Mixed Methods Research Design

  • Convergent Parallel Design: Quantitative + qualitative data are collected and analyzed separately, then compared.

  • Explanatory Sequential Design: Quantitative data is collected and analyzed first, followed by qualitative data to further explain the quantitative results.

  • Exploratory Sequential Design: Qualitative data is collected and analyzed first, then used to develop a new instrument or taxonomy for the quantitative strand.