Lecture 1: Earth Systems Overture

Overview of the course themes and the opening keynote

  • Tim Stall introduces himself as a geomorphologist and geohazards specialist and explains the course will cover Earth systems and related wicked problems over three weeks, with some administrative content that may bleed into the next lecture.
  • Core purpose of the course: develop systems thinking to address earth-system processes and tackle wicked problems using a holistic approach that analyzes interactions and interdependencies within a system.
  • Two key concepts introduced for the course (to be explored in depth in coming lectures):
    • Systems thinking: using holistic approaches to understand complex processes by analyzing interactions and interdependencies among components.
    • Wicked problems: problems with unclear definitions and competing, contradictory, or changing solutions depending on how variables are approached within the system.
  • The lecture frames Earth as a complex, interrelated system where geology, hydrology, biology, climate, and human society all interact to shape hazards and landscapes.

Fieldwork and the Moroccan earthen-architecture case study

  • Context: Sabbatical in Oxford, with a field trip to Morocco under the AFOX program (focused on sustainable development in African nations) to study seismic hazards and resilience.

  • Study area: around Marrakesh and south of the High Atlas (Ghazazat/Wah Zazat area) in Morocco.

  • Geological focus: identify active faults capable of producing earthquakes near urban centers; the atlas region is bounded by active faults and features significant seismic history.

  • Key field observations:

    • A previously undocumented active fault exposed near Marrakesh (about 40 minutes from the city). The exposure shows young alluvial-gravel over rock units and is adjacent to quarrying activity.
    • A second active fault south of the Atlas near Wah Zazat with measurable offset of about 30−40 extm30-40\ ext{m} in the contact between layers.
    • Field methods included laser-scanning (LiDAR), detailed logging of outcrops, and sampling for dating to constrain past earthquake ages.
    • The team collaborated with partners from China, Afghanistan, and Morocco to document faults and seismic history.

  • Archaeology-like workflow:

    • Systematic outcrop logging and sampling for dating past events, similar to an archaeological approach to tectonics.
    • Repeatedly moving to new outcrops to build a regional picture of fault history.

  • Cultural context: Berber/Amazigh communities inhabit the Atlas region; towns and fortifications (kazba) and mosques display distinctive earthen architecture that uses locally sourced materials (earth, clay, sand, gravel, straw) and traditional construction techniques.

  • Earthen architecture in practice:

    • Materials and methods include adobe bricks, cob, and rammed earth (a compacted mix of clay, sand, and gravel).
    • Local resource use: materials sourced from river valleys and outcrops; doors often painted blue; indigo-dyed textiles and pigments used ornamentally.
    • UNESCO World Heritage: Ike Ben Hadou, an ancient fortress perched on a hillside and emblematic of local earthen building traditions.
    • Craftsmanship observed: highly skilled artisans performing cutting, molding, repairing, and decorative work by hand.

  • Social and experiential notes:

    • Visitors are commonly offered tea, then dinner, followed by traditional music, illustrating the social and cultural importance of these towns.
    • A running joke about attempting to access Ike Ben Hadou during a film shoot (The Odyssey, with Matt Damon) highlights regulatory and access constraints in field sites.

  • Global distribution and vernacular architecture:

    • Earthen architecture is a widespread vernacular building tradition found globally, with a concentration near deserts and in alpine–Himalayan belt regions.
    • The map of UNESCO World Heritage sites shows dense clusters in equatorial, desert-adjacent regions and near high mountain ranges (the Alpine–Himalayan belt).
    • Vernacular architecture is characterized by minimal engineered intervention and reliance on local materials.

  • Environmental drivers behind the geography of earthen towns:

    • High thermal mass of adobe structures supports human comfort in regions with extreme diurnal temperature swings (hot days, cool nights).
    • Desert and arid regions with limited timber lead communities to rely on clay, sand, gravel, and straw as primary resources.
    • Orographic rainfall: mountains force moist air to rise and cool, producing precipitation on windward sides and creating rain shadows on leeward sides; this shapes where water is available and where towns cluster.
    • Rainfall distribution in northern Morocco: Atlas Mountains receive high rainfall totals on the wetter side (~1,200 mm yr−11{,}200\ \mathrm{mm\,yr^{-1}}), while areas like Wahr Azazat experience very low rainfall (often <100 mm yr−1100\ \mathrm{mm\,yr^{-1}}).
    • River valleys and groundwater: towns cluster around rare rivers and surface groundwater sources, which also provide mineral-rich sediments for building.

  • Water infrastructure and settlement patterns:

    • Kanat irrigation systems (ancient water-diversion structures) extend groundwater and surface water from range fronts to fields and peripheries (Iran example shown, but concept common in the region).
    • Sand, clay, and silt are transported by river systems from mountains to basins, delivering the raw materials for rammed earth, adobe bricks, and cob.

  • Resource constraints and sustainability:

    • Morocco has low forest cover (green on land-cover maps shows only ~2–5% forest cover) due to historical deforestation; scarcity of timber constrains alternative building materials like timber framing or steel.
    • Berber societies tend to be less wealthy and therefore less able to import reinforced materials or foreign building technologies.
    • Earth architecture is highly sustainable in terms of embodied carbon: local extraction, minimal transport, hand construction, and easy end-of-life recycling.

  • Disaster resilience and drawbacks:

    • Earthen buildings are very effective at thermal regulation but are comparatively vulnerable to seismic shaking when subjected to large, multi-story constructions with heavy roofs.
    • A 2023 magnitude 6.8 earthquake in the High Atlas region displaced thousands because adobe structures crumbled, revealing a major hazard: seismic vulnerability in traditional earthen construction.
    • The phrase "fatal attraction" describes the paradox of clustering towns at resource-rich interfaces (mountains and desert basins) that also exposes them to higher seismic hazard.

  • The Earth-system feedback loop (overview):

    • Plate tectonics shape mountain belts and continental arrangement, which influence climate patterns (e.g., topography driving orographic rainfall).
    • Weathering and erosion transport nutrients and sediments from mountains to basins, enabling agriculture and settlement in arid regions with scarce resources.
    • Human settlement patterns respond to these resources, creating further vulnerabilities (earthquake risk, land-use changes, and cultural practices).
    • Hydrology (water availability) and geomorphology (valley formation, river routing) influence where earthen building is viable and sustainable.
    • The system is dynamic and non-linear: changing one variable (e.g., climate extremes due to warming) can alter resource availability, building practices, and hazard exposure.

  • A broader ecological and ethical frame:

    • Earthen architecture demonstrates environmental sustainability and cultural significance, but seismic risk and climate change pose ethical and policy questions (protecting UNESCO heritage, supporting communities, and avoiding unintended consequences of modernization).
    • Debates exist on the impact of Western building interventions on adaptive traditional practices (some argue that steel or modern elements can weaken traditional systems if not integrated thoughtfully).
    • The course foregrounds justice and equity: communities contributing least to climate change often bear the greatest risks, and sustainable practices should be supported without eroding cultural heritage.

Core course concepts: systems thinking and wicked problems (reiterated)

  • Systems thinking (definition): use holistic approaches to understand complex earth processes by analyzing interactions and interdependencies among system elements.
  • Wicked problems (definition): problems with unclear definitions, competing/contradictory/unstable solutions, and sensitivity to how the problem is framed or variables are altered.
  • Learning aim: apply systems thinking to address wicked problems in Earth science, integrating geology, hydrology, biology, atmosphere, and human society.

Course structure, staff, and logistics (administrative details)

  • Course leadership and collaborators:
    • Tim Stall: lecturer in geomorphology and geology for the first three weeks.
    • Kate Pedley: course coordinator (primary contact for course structure and assessments).
    • Specialist instructors include:
    • Professor Darren Gravely: hydrothermal and geothermal systems.
    • Professor Tom Wilson: disaster risk and chief scientist of NZ’s national disaster agency (NEMA).
    • Professors Andy Nickel and Dr. Camilla Penny: New Zealand/global tectonics and earthquake hazards (term four focus).
    • Dr. Tom Robinson: landslide hazards and risk; leads AF8 on Alpine Fault seismic hazard.
    • Dr. James Williams: tsunami hazards and risk (disaster risks team).
    • Professor Ben Kennedy: volcanoes and science communication awardee.
  • Schedule and emphasis:
    • Term structure: three weeks of lectures led by Tim Stall (Earth systems and wicked problems) followed by terms focusing on minerals/resources, risk, and natural hazards.
    • There are three in-person lectures per week (Monday, Wednesday, Thursday), with labs clustered in term three and term four.
    • The course includes a significant, mandatory, late September–October workshop: an Alpine Fault hazard scenario workshop on Saturday, October 4, with an approximate weight of about 30%30\% of the final grade.
    • No labs in the first two weeks; the first lab session occurs in week 3 (coordinated with the Academic Skills Center on scientific reporting).
    • An acid-mine-drainage–style environmental geology lab and an associated report are due after the labs (week 6).
    • A short-answer/MCQ assessment occurs in the final week of term three.
    • The term four labs occur in weeks 1–3 of that term, each contributing about 5%5\% toward the final grade (low-stakes if completed).
    • A hazard-scenario report is due near the end of the semester (exact date to be announced).
    • There is a final exam in the course (date and weight to be confirmed on the Learn page).
  • Assessment overview (approximate, note: numbers may be updated on the Learn page):
    • Term three: total ~35%35\% of the final grade, with:
    • Lab report worth 20%20\% (covering weeks 3–5 labs; due in week 6).
    • Short-answer MCQ test worth 15%15\% (last week of term three).
    • Term four: total ~15%15\% from three labs (each 5%5\%) plus the hazard-scenario report and final exam (weights to be confirmed).
    • There is a final exam (weight to be confirmed).
  • Late submission policy (guideline, provisional):
    • < 24 hours late: −5% penalty.
    • 24 hours to < 3 days late: −10% penalty.
    • < 7 days late: −15% penalty.
    • > 7 days late: not accepted for credit.
    • If you anticipate late submission, contact Kate Pedley or the assessment lead in advance to make arrangements.
  • Workload expectations:
    • The course is a 15-point course, with an expected workload of roughly 150 hours150\ hours total (about 10 hours per week across the term).
    • There is a substantial element of independent study, given that in-person contact is roughly one-third of the total workload.
  • Support and class reps:
    • The course welcomes two to three class representatives. Those interested should contact Kate Pedley or Tim Stall to be signed up.

Key takeaways and connections to real-world relevance

  • Earthen architecture offers a meaningful case study for understanding how culture, climate, geology, and water resources interact to shape human settlement and building practices.
  • The Morocco case study demonstrates how local resources, social structures, and environmental constraints create a resilient architectural tradition that is simultaneously vulnerable to seismic hazards.
  • The course emphasizes the need for systems thinking to navigate wicked problems in Earth science, where simple, one-cause explanations are insufficient.
  • Ethical and practical discussions arise around preserving heritage (UNESCO sites), balancing modernization with tradition, and addressing climate-change–driven stress on vulnerable communities.
  • The Alpine Himalayan Belt and the broader plate-tectonics context provide a framework for connecting regional hazards to global tectonic processes.

Quick reference to notable terms and concepts from the lecture

  • AFOX: program focused on sustainable development in African nations; Morocco project studied seismic hazards and resilience.
  • Active fault: a fault that has produced observable movement in the recent past and may produce earthquakes in the future.
  • Ike Ben Hadou: UNESCO World Heritage Site illustrating ancient earthen fortress architecture.
  • Adobe, cob, rammed earth: three primary earthen construction techniques.
  • Kanat: ancient water-diversion infrastructure used to bring groundwater and surface water for irrigation.
  • Vernacular architecture: traditional building styles that are largely unengineered and locally sourced.
  • Orographic rainfall: rainfall pattern generated when air is lifted over mountains, leading to wet windward sides and dry rain-shadow sides.
  • Alpine Himalayan Belt: major tectonic belt extending from North Africa to East Asia, associated with significant earthquake hazards.
  • Wicked problem: a problem with unclear boundaries and evolving, conflicting solutions; a central concept for the course’s approach to Earth science.
  • Systems thinking: holistic analysis of interactions and interdependencies among parts of a complex system.
  • Earth system components: geosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, atmosphere, and their interactions, including human society.

Notes on sources and anecdotes from the lecture

  • The speaker recounted social rituals (tea, dinner, music) as part of fieldwork experiences and cultural immersion in Berber towns.
  • A lighthearted aside about attempting to access Ike Ben Hadou during a film shoot with Matt Damon (The Odyssey) illustrates access and logistics challenges in field research.
  • Real-world examples used to illustrate wicked problems include the Bam (Iran) and Tehran (Megacity) earthquake contexts, highlighting the consequences of settlement patterns at resource-rich interfaces.
  • A cited paper describing the interplay of desert, mountains, climate, and hazards as a “wicked problem” framework for the region is referenced as a foundational basis for the course approach.

Administrative reminders (for students)

  • Primary course contact for overarching structure and assessments: Kate Pedley.
  • Tim Stall will cover content during Weeks 1–3; the rest of the course features a strong roster of experts.
  • The Learn page contains the official course outline, schedule, and any updates to assessment weights.
  • October 4 is a mandatory Alpine Fault hazard-scenario workshop (roughly 30% of final grade); plan accordingly and keep that date free.
  • Attendance policy: lectures are strongly encouraged (in-person preferred), but recordings are available for review or if you are unable to attend due to work or illness.
  • The course aims to blend in-depth field-based understanding with theoretical concepts, culminating in a practical hazard-focused workshop and final evaluation.