A Phenomenological Investigation of Altruism from the Perspective of Counsellors in Scotland

Overview of the Phenomenological Investigation of Altruism

• Objective: The study sought to describe how practising counsellors (n = 9) residing in Scotland experience altruistic caring in their personal and professional lives.
• Core Framework: The research is an extension of qualitative studies focused on the Altruism Development Model (ADM) (Curry, Smith & Robinson, 2009).
• Primary Purpose: To focus on the common experiences of counsellors regarding altruistic caring and describe the phenomenon within the context of the ADM.
• Significance: Studying altruism in helping professions enhances understanding of human social behavior, personality, and nature.

Definitions and Theoretical Constructs of Altruism

• General Debate: There is scholarly debate regarding the existence and definition of altruism. A simple definition describes it as behaviour that benefits others (Rushton, Chrisjohn & Fekken, 1981).
• The Altruism Continuum: Altruism is often viewed on a continuum (Krebs & Van Hesteren, 1994; Rushton, 1982):     * One end posits that a "true" altruistic act cannot exist because the actor always receives something as a consequence.     * The other end combines behavior and motivation, suggesting that receiving something unexpected does not negate the act (Eisenberg et al., 1999).
• Study Definition: Altruism is defined verbatim as "behaviour motivated by concern for others or by internalised values, goals, and self-rewards rather than by the expectation of concrete or social rewards, or the desire to avoid punishment or sanctions" (Eisenberg et al., 1999, p. 1360).

The Altruism Development Model (ADM)

• Origins: Developed by Curry, Smith & Robinson (2009) following a study of 34 residents at a Quaker retirement community in the north-east United States.
• Four Contributing Factors:     * Biology: Suggests the existence of an "altruistic gene"; individuals are either born with the capacity or not (Dugatkin, 2006; Rushton et al., 1981).     * Cognition: Altruism is learned through the development of the ability to take on others' perspectives. As an individual develops empathy, they naturally become more altruistic (Eisenberg et al., 1999; Krebs & Van Hesteren, 1994).     * Social Learning: Altruistic caring is learned through modelling (Konenci & Ebbesen, 1975).     * Religion/Spirituality: An individual’s religious and spiritual beliefs impact the development and expression of altruism (Curry et al., 2009).
• Expanded Domains: Limberg et al. (2015) identified six domains among diverse counsellors-in-training: biological, cognitive, social, religion/spiritual, counselling, and empathy.

The Scottish Context for Counselling

• Mental Health Landscape: Mental health needs in Scotland have increased, but a robust support system is not always present (Scottish Government, 2012).
• Professional Challenges: Counsellors in Scotland often face difficulties finding paid employment. Many choose to volunteer for mental health agencies and charities rather than leave the profession, demonstrating altruistic behavior in their pursuit of being helping professionals.

Methodological Design: Transcendental Phenomenology

• Design Choice: A phenomenological design was used to make meaning of daily experiences and provide a collective description of the "what" and "how" of the phenomenon (Grbich, 2007; Hays & Singh, 2012).
• Transcendental Principle: Originating from Edmund Husserl, this approach requires researchers to assess and neutralize subjectivity to prevent biases from influencing the study object (Lopez & Willis, 2004).
• Institutional Approval: The protocol was approved by an institutional review board (IRB).
• Data Collection Methods:     * Demographic questionnaires.     * Semi-structured interviews (17 open-ended questions).     * Field notes recorded after interviews to debrief facilitators.

Participant Demographics and Selection

• Sample Size: $n = 9$ participants (8 females, 1 male).
• Recruitment: Purposive criteria were used via the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy (BACP) and Counselling and Psychotherapy in Scotland (COSCA).
• Selection Criteria: Currently in practice as a counsellor and living in Scotland, with varying years of experience and specialty training.
• Age and Experience:     * Mean Age: $52.78\,\text{years}$ ($SD = 9.95$; range, 34–65).     * Average Work Experience: $15.56\,\text{years}$ ($SD = 9.42$; range, 6–35).
• Education: All participants held graduate diplomas in fields including integrative psychotherapy, youth counselling, and relationship therapy.
• Diversity: Eight participants identified as white; one identified as "mixed."

The Research Team and Positionality

• Team Composition: Four Americans (two men, two women); two doctoral students and two faculty/professionals.
• Bracketing: Biases were recorded prior to and during data collection (Moustakas, 1994). Assumptions included the belief that altruism is connected to modelling, spiritual systems, and the choice to enter the counselling profession.
• Trustworthiness: Enhanced through investigator triangulation and an external auditor (a female peer with qualitative experience but no prior altruism research background).

Moustakas’ (1994) Seven Steps of Data Analysis

1. Researcher Experience: Recording own experiences of altruistic behavior.
2. Horizontalisation: Highlighting significant statements. Example: Participant 1 describing a son buying an extra pizza for a homeless child in Edinburgh without seeking recognition.
3. Clusters of Meanings: Developing five themes: religion/spiritual, social learning, cognitive, biological, and self-care.
4. Textural Description: Describing what participants experienced. Findings indicated experiences are complex and sometimes conflicting.
5. Structural Description (Imaginative Variation): Describing the context or structure influencing experience. Found that altruism is viewed as "part of themselves."
6. Field Observations: Recording environment and perceived reactions (e.g., participants' high level of hospitality and enthusiasm).
7. Essential, Invariant Structure: Developing a composite description representing the essence of the phenomenon.

Key Findings and Essences of the Phenomenon

• Essence 1: Altruism as Everyday Expectation: Counsellors in Scotland experience altruism as a normal part of daily life and a cultural expectation. It is an integral component of the Scottish identity and community.
• Essence 2: Inclusion of Self-Care: Altruism in Scotland includes wellness and self-care. It is recognized that taking care of oneself is necessary to be an effective counsellor.
• The Problem with Religion: Some participants felt religious altruism could be an "obligation" rather than a drive based on "genuine love."
• Social Learning/Culture: Participants noted that the idea of giving without expecting back is a specific "Scottish thing."
• Community Essential: Participant 3 stated that a community only truly exists if there are acts of altruism, as opposed to individuals just looking out for themselves.

Discussion and Integration of Findings

• Comparison to ADM: Findings supported the four factors of the ADM (Curry et al., 2009) and the importance of social learning/culture (Swank et al., 2012, 2013).
• Altruism and Wellness: Flynn and Black (2011) identified altruism and wellness as "two parts of the same whole." Counsellors who neglect self-interest are at risk of burnout and impairment.
• Correlation with Burnout: Limberg, Lambie, and Robinson (2017) found that higher levels of altruism in counsellors correlate with lower levels of burnout.

Practical Implications for Counselling

• Cross-Cultural Competency: Counsellors should explore how culture influences a client's altruistic attitudes, as these may operate without the client's conscious awareness.
• Wellness and Professional Longevity: Self-care and boundaries between work and home life allow counsellors to remain present and open to altruistic opportunities.
• Clinical Interventions: Exploring altruism and self-care in clients can be part of a holistic assessment. Altruistic interventions may assist in self-esteem work since doing good for others yields inner rewards.

Research Limitations and Future Directions

• Selection Bias: Participants were members of professional organizations (BACP/COSCA) and were self-selected, potentially skewing results toward those already interested in altruism.
• Cultural Lens: The researchers were Americans studying Scottish participants; this may have led to misinterpretations of cultural statements, though it provided a level of researcher neutrality.
• Future Research: Recommendations include examining altruism among counsellors in other cultures and comparing international views to develop a multicultural perspective on the role of altruism in counselling outcomes.