7.7 relationship between media and audiences

AQA A-Level Sociology: The Relationship Between the Media and Audiences

What You Need to Know

You need to be able to:

• Explain sociological theories about media effects.

• Analyse and evaluate different audience models.

• Understand methodological debates about researching media effects.

1. Theoretical FrameworksFunctionalist View

The media performs positive functions for society:

Socialisation

• Teaches society's norms and values.

• Reinforces acceptable behaviour.

Social Control

• Exposes deviant behaviour.

• Encourages conformity.

Social Solidarity

• Shared media experiences unite people.

• Creates value consensus.

Example: News coverage of national events can bring people together.

Marxist View

Media serves the interests of the ruling class.

Althusser: Ideological State Apparatus (ISA)

The media:

• Spreads ruling-class ideology.

• Influences people through ideas rather than force.

• Encourages acceptance of capitalism.

False Class Consciousness

Media distracts workers from recognising exploitation.

Examples

• Celebrity culture.

• Consumerism.

• Focus on individual success rather than class inequality.

Feminist View

Media helps maintain patriarchy.

Radical Feminists

Argue media:

• Objectifies women.

• Reinforces traditional gender roles.

• Promotes male dominance.

Neo-Marxism & HegemonyGramsci

The ruling class maintains power through consent rather than force.

Media:

• Shapes common sense ideas.

• Makes inequality seem natural.

2. Direct Effects TheoriesFolk Devils (Cohen)

Groups portrayed negatively by media.

Example

Mods and Rockers (1964)

Media:

• Exaggerated conflict.

• Labelled groups as dangerous.

• Increased public fear.

Moral Panic

A situation where:

• Media exaggerates a social problem.

• Public becomes fearful.

• Pressure grows for action.

Features

• Fear

• Hostility

• Exaggeration

• Public concern

Deviancy Amplification (Cohen)

Media attention increases deviant behaviour.

Process:

1. Behaviour occurs.

2. Media exaggerates it.

3. Public concern rises.

4. More attention is given.

5. Behaviour increases further.

Baudrillard: Hyperreality

Media can blur reality and fiction.

Simulacra

Copies without originals.

Hyperreality

People struggle to distinguish reality from media representations.

3. Hypodermic Syringe ModelMain Idea

Media messages are "injected" directly into passive audiences.

Audience:

• Passive.

• Easily manipulated.

• Accepts media messages without questioning them.

EvidenceBandura (1961) – Bobo Doll Experiment

Children observed aggressive behaviour.

Findings:

• Children copied aggression.

• Suggested imitation of media violence.

Media Violence ExamplesJames Bulger Case (1993)

• Murderers had watched Child's Play 3.

• Some claimed media violence influenced behaviour.

Columbine School Shooting (1999)

• Linked by some commentators to violent music and games.

Evaluation of Hypodermic Syringe ModelStrengths

• Some evidence for imitation.

• Media can influence behaviour.

Weaknesses

• Bandura was artificial.

• Audience seen as too passive.

• Most people do not copy violence.

• Ignores individual interpretation.

CounterargumentsCatharsis

Media violence may reduce aggression by providing an outlet.

Desensitisation

Repeated exposure may make violence seem less shocking.

Awareness

Media coverage may educate people about social issues.

4. Cultural Effects ModelMain Idea

Media influence is:

• Long term.

• Gradual.

• Indirect.

Instead of immediate effects, media shapes beliefs over time.

The Drip-Drip Effect

Repeated messages:

• Gradually influence attitudes.

• Become normalised.

Example

Repeated stereotypes of women or ethnic minorities can shape public beliefs.

Encoding and Decoding (Hall)

Media messages contain meanings.

Audience:

1. Decodes messages.

2. Interprets them.

3. May accept or reject them.

Therefore:

• Audiences are active, not passive.

EvaluationStrengths

• More realistic than hypodermic model.

• Recognises audience interpretation.

• Explains long-term attitude formation.

Weaknesses

• Difficult to measure long-term effects.

• Hard to prove direct causation.

5. Reception AnalysisMain Idea

Audiences actively interpret media messages.

Different people understand the same message differently.

Hall's Three Readings1. Dominant (Preferred) Reading

Audience accepts intended meaning.

Example:
A news report praising police is accepted as accurate.

2. Negotiated Reading

Partly accepts and partly rejects.

Example:
Agreeing with police actions generally but criticising specific actions.

3. Oppositional Reading

Rejects intended meaning.

Example:
Viewing police as oppressive rather than heroic.

Factors Affecting Interpretation

• Class

• Gender

• Age

• Ethnicity

• Religion

• Personal experience

EvaluationStrengths

• Reflects diversity of audiences.

• Recognises agency.

• Supported by audience research.

Weaknesses

• Underestimates media power.

• Some messages may still have dominant influence.

6. Two-Step Flow Model (Katz & Lazarsfeld, 1955)Main Idea

Media messages do not directly affect everyone.

Instead:

Media → Opinion Leaders → Audience

Opinion Leaders

People who:

• Consume lots of media.

• Have specialist knowledge.

• Influence others.

Examples:

• Teachers

• Politicians

• Journalists

• Influencers

• Community leaders

Process

1. Opinion leaders receive media information.

2. They interpret it.

3. They pass it to others.

4. Audience forms opinions partly through them.

EvaluationStrengths

• Recognises social interaction.

• More realistic than hypodermic model.

Weaknesses

• Media influence can be direct today through social media.

• Opinion leaders themselves are influenced by media.

7. Selective Filter Model (Klapper, 1960)Main Idea

Audiences choose how they engage with media.

People actively filter messages.

Three Filters1. Selective Exposure

People choose media that matches existing beliefs.

Example:
Conservatives reading conservative newspapers.

2. Selective Perception

People interpret messages differently.

Example:
Two people watching the same news report but reaching different conclusions.

3. Selective Retention

People remember messages that support existing views.

EvaluationStrengths

• Recognises audience activity.

• Supported by everyday experience.

Weaknesses

• Media saturation means people still encounter unwanted messages.

• Advertising can bypass filters through repetition and emotional appeals.

8. Uses and Gratifications Model (McQuail)Main Idea

People actively use media to satisfy needs.

Audience chooses media rather than media controlling audience.

Four Main Uses1. Diversion

Escape from everyday life.

Examples:
Netflix, gaming, films.

2. Personal Relationships

Creates shared experiences and discussion topics.

Examples:
Talking about TV shows with friends.

3. Personal Identity

Reinforces values and identity.

Examples:
Finding relatable characters.

4. Surveillance

Finding information about the world.

Examples:
News and documentaries.

EvaluationStrengths

• Audience-centred approach.

• Recognises active choice.

Weaknesses

• Media can still shape attitudes.

• Some media content influences people regardless of intention.

Glasgow University Media Group (Key Study)

Studied media coverage of industrial disputes.

Findings

Media often:

• Reflected dominant interests.

• Favoured powerful groups.

• Presented strikes negatively.

Example

1984–85 Miners' Strike:

• Many viewers believed picketing miners caused violence.

• Evidence suggested police often initiated clashes.

Significance

Supports cultural effects theory:

• Media influence is subtle and long-term rather than immediate.

Comparison Table

Key Sociologists to Remember

• Althusser – Ideological State Apparatus

• Gramsci – Hegemony

• Cohen – Moral panic & deviancy amplification

• Baudrillard – Hyperreality

• Bandura – Bobo Doll experiment

• Hall – Encoding/decoding & reception analysis

• Katz & Lazarsfeld – Two-step flow

• Klapper – Selective filter model

• McQuail – Uses and gratifications

• Glasgow University Media Group – Media bias

20-Mark Essay Tip

For any question on media effects:

Paragraph 1: Hypodermic Syringe Model
Paragraph 2: Cultural Effects Model
Paragraph 3: Reception Analysis
Paragraph 4: Selective Filter / Uses & Gratifications
Conclusion: Media does influence audiences, but effects are usually indirect, negotiated and shaped by social context rather than being simple and direct.