AP Gov Unit 4 & 5

Foundational American Political Beliefs

The core values that shape American politics include:

• Individualism: Emphasis on self-reliance.

• Equality of Opportunity: The idea that everyone gets a fair chance.

• Free Enterprise: Minimal government intervention in the economy.

• Rule of Law: Everyone is equal under the law.

• Limited Government: Checks and balances, separation of powers.

These values influence how citizens view the government and interact with each other, creating tension between independence and community needs.

Political Socialization

Political socialization is how individuals learn about politics. Key influences include:

• Family: Initial and significant influence through conversations and values.

• Education Systems: Expose students to different perspectives and shape political thought.

• Peers: Social pressure to align with those around you.

• Media: Sets the agenda and decides what is considered important.

Public Opinion and Polling

Public opinion is measured through polling. Different types of polls serve different purposes:

• Opinion Polls: General snapshot of public sentiment.

• Benchmark Polls: Conducted at the start of a campaign.

• Tracking Polls: Follow the same group over time to observe shifts in opinion.

• Entrance and Exit Polls: Conducted on election day to understand who voted and why.

Considerations for Polling

• Bandwagon Effect: Supporting a candidate because they seem popular.

• Partisan Polls: Biased sources.

• Methodology: Importance of unbiased questions and random samples.

• Representative Samples: Generalizing to the whole population.

• Mass Surveys: Quantitative data.

• Focus Groups: Qualitative data for deeper discussions.

Potential Biases

• Margin of Error: Usually around 3-5%.

• Social Desirability Bias: Not wanting to give unpopular answers.

• Non-Response Bias: Some groups are less likely to answer polls.

Ideologies

Liberals

• Often align with Democrats.

• Push for reforms and societal equity.

• Tend to favor individual liberty and stronger limits on government intrusion in personal life.

• May support government intervention and regulations for safety and equality.

• Support Keynesian economics: government spending $( {1}{2})$ to boost the economy.

Conservatives

• Often align with Republicans.

• Value tradition and established institutions.

• May accept government intervention for security or the greater good.

• Emphasize personal responsibility and meritocracy.

• Support laissez-faire economics and supply-side economics.

• Prefer monetary policy for managing the economy.

• Often emphasize the strict letter of the law on social issues.

Libertarians

• Advocate for minimal government across the board.

• Focus on individual liberty and social matters.

• Believe the government's main job is to protect property and liberty.

Expansion of Suffrage

Key constitutional amendments that expanded suffrage:

• Fifteenth Amendment (1870): Prohibits denying the vote based on race.

• Seventeenth Amendment (1913): Direct election of senators.

• Nineteenth Amendment (1920): Gave women the right to vote.

• Twenty-Fourth Amendment (1964): Eliminated poll taxes.

• Twenty-Sixth Amendment (1971): Lowered the voting age to 18.

Voting Behavior

Voting Decision Factors

• Rational Choice Voting: Voting based on what is best for oneself personally.

• Retrospective Voting: Judging incumbents on their past performance.

• Prospective Voting: Voting based on what candidates promise to do in the future.

• Party-Line Voting: Voting for every candidate from one's party.

Voter Turnout

Distinction between voting-eligible population and voting-age population. Factors limiting turnout:

• Political Efficacy: Belief that one's vote matters.

• State Registration Laws: Impact voter turnout.

• Voter ID Laws: Debate over preventing fraud versus creating barriers.

• Ease of Registration and Voting: Accessibility of polls and mail-in voting.

• Election Type: Presidential elections get more attention and higher turnout.

Demographics

• Age: Seniors vote most consistently; young people vote least.

• Gender, Race, Religion: Influence voting patterns.

• Party ID: Strong predictor of voting behavior.

• Candidate Quality: Charisma, experience influencing voting choices.

Linkage Institutions

Linkage institutions connect citizens to the political process and government.

Political Parties

• Groups with shared beliefs trying to win elections.

• Mobilize and educate voters.

• Create platforms, recruit candidates, and manage campaigns.

Interest Groups

• Focused on specific issues, lobbying for policies they like.

Elections

• Direct connection between voters and government.

Media

• Shapes information flow and public discourse.

Party Evolution

• Candidate-centered campaigns are becoming more common.

• Changing demographics shift alignments.

• Critical elections can realign political landscapes.

• Technology and social media change how parties reach people.

Third Parties

• Face challenges due to the winner-take-all system.

• Major parties may co-opt third-party ideas.

Interest Group Influence

• Unequal resources lead to unequal influence.

• Engage in campaign funding to gain access to decision-makers.

• Face the free-rider problem.

Activities

• Educate voters and officials.

• Lobby and meet with lawmakers.

• Help draft legislation.

• Mobilize members.

Iron Triangle

• Relationship between a congressional committee, an interest group, and a bureaucratic agency.

Issue Networks

• Looser coalitions working on specific issues.

Social Movements

• Raise awareness and put pressure on the system.

Federal Elections

Presidential Elections

• Held every four years.

• Incumbency advantage.

• Primaries, caucuses, and party conventions.

• Electoral College: Each state gets electors based on its total number of house representatives plus its two senators.

  • Need 270 electoral votes to win.

Congressional Elections

• Held every two years.

• All House seats are up for election every two years.

• Senators serve six-year terms, with about a third up for reelection every two years.

• Incumbency advantage is often strong.

Campaign Strategies

• Professional consultants are frequently employed.

• Advertising is a huge expense.
  $Cost <br>ear Ads$

• Social media enables directer reach to voters.

Campaign Finance

• BCRA (Bipartisan Campaign Finance Reform Act of 2002): Limited soft money donations to parties and regulated hard money donations to candidates.

• Citizens United: Corporations and unions spending money on elections is free speech, leading to unlimited independent expenditures.

  • Expenditures cannot directly coordinate with the candidate's campaign.

A Political Action Committee (PAC) is defined as follows: $PAC = Party + Action + Commitee$

Types of Political Action Committees:

• Connected PACs: Tied to a corporation or union.

• Non-Connected PACs: Independent, issue-focused.

• Super PACs: Can take unlimited donations but cannot coordinate with campaigns.

Hard versus Soft Money

• Hard Money: Goes directly to the candidate with strict limits.

• Soft Money: Goes to parties or groups with fewer limits, used for voter mobilization.

Media

• Serves as a watchdog, holding power accountable.

• Evolved from telegraph and radio to TV and social media.

Types of Journalism

• Reporting events.

• Investigative journalism.

• Horse race coverage focusing on who is ahead in the polls.

• Policy reporting explaining details.

• Editorial commentary providing opinions and analysis.

Polarization and the Media

• Media choice leads to echo chambers.

• Media bias exists through outlet slant, reporters' views, and framing.

• Ideological media outlets cater to specific viewpoints.

• People tend to consume information that confirms existing beliefs.

• The media influences political polarization.