LING 1000 - Week 10 Lecture Notes

Introduced the X’ Schema as the basic structure for all phrases in a language.
- Definition: The X’ Schema serves as a blueprint for all phrases.
Structure of X’ Schema:
- XP - Specifier
- X’ - Head + Complement(s)
Head Definition: The head is the core element around which the phrase is built.
- Analogy to head of a compound: It forms the essence of the phrase's meaning.
Lexical Categories that can function as heads of phrases:
1. Noun (N)
2. Verb (V)
3. Adjective (A)
4. Preposition (P)

Definition: Specifiers are grammatical elements that provide additional information and always occur to the left of the head in a phrase.
Example: Specifiers in Noun Phrases (NP): "the book", "this"
Examples of Phrase Construction:
- NP (Noun Phrase): Head + Specifier (e.g., a picture, the map, those people)
- VP (Verb Phrase): Head (Verb) + Specifier (e.g., never quit, perhaps go)
- AP (Adjective Phrase): Head (Adjective) + Degree Word (e.g., very smart)
- PP (Prepositional Phrase): Head (Preposition) + Degree Word (e.g., quite in)

Definition: Complements are phrases that provide essential information about the head and attach to the right of the head.
Examples demonstrating the function of complements:
- Protect the environment: tells what is being protected.
- In the house: indicates the location.
- In a map of Canada: specifies what the map depicts.
Complements are recognized as they are phrases themselves and combine with the four lexical categories (N, V, A, P).

Phrase construction showcasing both a specifier and a complement:
- NP Example: a map of Canada
- VP Example: always protect the environment
- AP Example: quite fond of wine
- PP Example: almost in the house
The X’ schema applies systematically to structure these phrases.

Sentences consist of phrases merged together, typically having two parts:
- NP forming the subject (entity performing the action)
- VP including the verb and sometimes an object
Example Sentence: The dogs chased the cats. The dogs ran.
- Breakdown:
  - NP (Subject): "The dogs"
  - VP (Verb + optional object): "chased the cats" or "ran"

Tree representation states that NP and VP are linked by TP (Tense Phrase) which indicates the tense of the sentence (past, present, or future).
Structure of a sentence:
- TP: Head = tense, NP (subject as Specifier) linked with VP (complement).
- Illustration Example: The hikers found the shortcut.
  - NP: the hikers
  - VP: found the shortcut (Past tense indicated by found)

TP links NP subject to VP, integrating verbo-tense components.
Example using auxiliaries in TP:
- The hikers will find the shortcut.
- The hikers may find the shortcut.
Tree Structure: Demonstrates TP linked with NP and VP, showing tense as a functional element in sentence structure.

Definition: A syntactic phrase is a string of words forming a syntactic constituent. Evidence can be tested using three types of constituency tests:
1. Substitution Test
2. Movement Test
3. Coordination Test

Test Objective: Replace a syntactic unit with a single word (e.g., pronoun for NP).
- Example: The children will stop at the corner. → They will stop at the corner. (Valid NP)
- Example: The children will stop at the corner. → The children will do so. (Valid VP)
Observations: The successful substitution indicates the presence of a syntactic constituent.

The movement test involves taking a syntactic unit and relocating it in the sentence.
- Example: At the corner, the children stopped. (Valid PP movement)
- Failure Case: At the, the children stopped corner. (Invalid NP movement)

The coordination test connects two syntactic units of the same type using conjunctions.
- Example: The children stopped at the store and at the playground. (Valid coordination)
- Failure Case: The children stopped at the and near a store. (Invalid coordination)

Succeeding tests indicate evidence of phrases.
Failing tests does not necessarily imply non-constituency — could be due to additional grammatical constraints.

Complement compatibility depends on heads and their requirements.
- Lexicon Definition: The mental dictionary where complement options of words are stored.
Subcategorization: A property indicating how different words require distinct types of complements.
- Example: The verb devour must combine with an NP complement:
  - The child devoured [NP the sandwich].
  - Invalid: The child devoured.

Transitive Verbs: Require an NP complement (direct object).
- Example: The child devoured [NP the sandwich].
- Invalid: The child devoured.
Intransitive Verbs: Do not accept NP complements.
- Example: The ghost vanished. (Valid)
- Invalid: The ghost vanished [NP the vampire].

Some verbs can function as either transitive or intransitive (e.g., eat).
- Example: They ate. (Intransitive)
- Example: They ate [NP a snack]. (Transitive)
Grammatical Structure: Some verbs must have more than one type of complement for validity.
- Example: put must have both an NP and a PP complement:
  - The librarian put [NP the book] [PP on the shelf].
  - Both components are required.

Nouns, adjectives, and prepositions also demonstrate subcategorization for complement options.
Examples:
- Nouns:
  - the car, the memory [PP of a friend], the presentation [PP to the winner]
- Adjectives:
  - very tall, curious [PP about linguistics], obvious [PP to the student]
- Prepositions:
  - in [NP the house], down [PP into the cellar]

The study of syntax indicates that words belong to either lexical or non-lexical categories which inform their syntactic distribution.
Phrases are constructed consistently based on the X’ Schema.
All sentences can be viewed as TPs integrating NP subjects and VP elements.
Phrase structure tests serve as reliable indicators of constituency.
Complement options depend on specific subcategorization reflected in the lexicon.