Notes on Language, Dialects, Pidgin/Creole, Jargon, and the American Dialect Map
Definitions: language, dialects, accents, and idiolects
Language: a system of communication with its own grammar, vocabulary, syntax, and expressions that can be subdivided into dialects.
Dialect: a version of a language with its own grammar, vocabulary, syntax, and expressions, in addition to unique pronunciation rules.
Accent: the way words are pronounced within a language/dialect; does not by itself define the dialect.
Idiolect: the unique speech pattern of an individual; no two people have exactly the same idiolect, but members of a group share enough features to be said to use the same dialect.
Key ideas about dialects and language variation
A language can be subdivided into multiple dialects that differ in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary.
The term accent is often used incorrectly; true accent = pronunciation only, while dialect includes grammar, vocabulary, syntax, and expressions.
Idiolects differ, but social groups can share a common dialect.
Mutual intelligibility is a theoretical criterion for distinguishing dialect from language, but politics and social factors often override purely linguistic criteria.
Three ingredients for a new dialect to develop:
A group living in close proximity;
Isolation (geographic or social) from other groups;
Passage of time.
Over time, a dialect may become a separate language.
Example: English originated as Anglo-Saxon, a Germanic dialect brought to England; geographic isolation led to divergence from German, with later influences from other invaders shaping modern English.
Modern language families in the same branch (e.g., Germanic) include Dutch, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, and Icelandic.
Language policy, politics, and social implications
Governments may declare all languages in a country as dialects of one language to foster political unity.
Conversely, some governments promote a distinct language to foster national pride.
History shows varied outcomes: minority languages may go extinct, survive only as dialects of the majority, or new languages may emerge from blending.
These decisions interact with power, identity, and social cohesion.
Pidgin, Creole, and jargon
Pidgin:
A simplified language used for communication between groups who do not share a common language, often for business or trade.
Vocabulary is minimal and grammatical rules are simplified (few verb conjugations and tenses).
Not anyone’s native language; used in specific contact contexts.
Etymology note: the term pidgin is sometimes linked to mispronunciations (e.g., Chinese merchants mispronouncing "business").
Children in some pidgin-speaking areas may learn the pidgin as their first language.
Creole:
Emerges when a pidgin becomes a native language for a community, usually through children learning it as their first language.
Develops a larger and more complex grammar and vocabulary, incorporating elements from all contributing languages.
Jargon:
Specialized vocabulary used within a discipline (e.g., medical, legal, academic jargon).
Can be criticized for being unnecessarily obscure; proponents argue it provides precision.
Often seeps into mainstream speech, but is frequently perceived as opaque outside its field.
Modern communications and the evolution of dialects
The rise of modern communications technology may slow dialect evolution because a single dialect (sometimes called Network Standard) can be broadcast nationally, reducing geographic isolation.
Despite this, social isolation persists due to racism, poverty, and class divisions, fostering social dialects (e.g., Black English/Ebonics).
Political and ethical controversies have surrounded whether Ebonics is a unique language, a legitimate dialect, or “illegitimate” gutterspeak.
Teenagers create their own dialects for social groups and secrecy; these often fade from mainstream usage as trends move on.
The Internet has spawned social dialects derived from hacker jargon (e.g., IMHO, IIRC, ROTFLMAO).
Descriptive vs prescriptive language attitudes
There is no single "correct English"; any manner of speaking that follows the rules of a dialect is linguistically valid.
Some dialect features are stigmatized due to prejudice and social prestige (e.g., Southern dialects often viewed as less prestigious by northern speakers).
Prestige dialects include Received Pronunciation (RP) in Britain, which is considered high prestige; other dialects can carry lower prestige in certain social contexts.
Education systems may encourage adopting a more prestigious dialect in formal settings, sometimes at the expense of regional speech patterns.
Example phrasing illustrating nonstandard forms: "Me are a educated person" would be incorrect in every dialect, though nonstandard forms like ain't occur in actual dialects.
The American dialect landscape: general framework
General Northern (often called General American): used in roughly two-thirds of the United States; a broad, relatively mid-Atlantic-neutral set of features.
This umbrella includes several regional dialects and subdialects across the North and Midwest.
Northern Dialects
New England Eastern (1): distinctive for R-dropping and an added R after a vowel; examples include:
"Pahk the cah in Hahvuhd yahd" (park the car in Harvard yard)
"Pepperidge Fahm remembuhs" (Pepperidge Farm remembers)
Boston Urban (2): social and class-based variation; Greater Boston and Eastern New England patterns; notable term usage includes terms linked to the Brahmin class.
New England Western (3): less distinctive than Eastern New England but influential on other Northern dialects.
Hudson Valley (4): Dutch influence in historic development; some original words include "stoop" (porch) and "teeter-totter"; doughnuts (crullers, olycooks).
New York City (5): strong regional identity with pronounced divergence; R-dropping after vowels; vowel shifts such as IR → OI and OI → IR; TH → D; examples include "Dey sell tirlets on doity-doid street" and "fugedaboudit".
Dialectic thickness correlates with social class; features fading in all classes over recent decades.
Famous speakers: Rosie Perez, Joe Pesci, Marisa Tomei, Archie Bunker, Bugs Bunny, Bowery Boys.
Bonac (6): dialect from eastern Long Island; rapidly dying out due to demographic changes; shows elements of both New England and New York City dialects.
Inland Northern (7): mixture of Western New England and Upper Midwestern; merger of certain vowel pairs (e.g., marry/marry/mary); doughnuts called "friedcakes".
San Francisco Urban (8): reflects North Midland and Upper Midwestern influence; Mission dialect (Irish Catholic community) resembles New York City dialect in some respects.
Upper Midwestern and Midwest touchpoints
Upper Midwestern (9): often described as a "Midwestern twang"; influenced by New England, New York, Southern dialects via the Mississippi River, and immigrant languages (German/Scandinavian) as well as Canadian English.
Subdialect Minnewegian (Minnesota / Norwegian) featured in pop culture (e.g., Fargo, Drop Dead Gorgeous).
Chicago Urban (10): Midland and Southern influences; popularized in media; some regions use "donuts" for sweet rolls.
North Midland (11): an area overlapping with the Midwestern North; features that contribute to the broader Northern American profile.
Inland (This region label often appears in maps in combination with nearby categories; dialect features include naming of doughnuts as friedcakes.)
Western and Pacific regions
Southwestern (16): a melting pot of dialects due to large Spanish-speaking influence; common local words include caballero, cantina, frijoles, madre, mesa, nana, padre, patio, plaza, ramada, tortilla.
Rocky Mountain (13): developed from North Midland and Northern dialects, later shaped by Mormon and English coal-miner communities; includes terms like kick off (to die), cache (hiding place), and bushed (tired); doughnuts sometimes called bismarks.
Pacific Northwest (14): influenced by Midwest and New England settlers, and by English, German, Scandinavian, and Canadian inputs; historically, Chinook Jargon formed a pidgin used by Native American tribes and later by European settlers; words such as high muckamuck (important person) survive, highlighting the note that the term jargon here has a distinct meaning.
Alaska (not shown): developed from Northern, Midland, and Western dialects, with influences from native languages (Alutites, Inuit) and Chinook Jargon; examples include bush (remote area), cabin fever, mush (to travel by dog sled), parka, stateside.
Pacific Southwest (15): early 19th–20th century settlement brought Northern and North Midland dialects; words from gold-rush era (pay dirt, pan out, goner) persist; the 1970s–1980s Valley Girl/Surfer Dude stereotype arose in media; Hollywood influence is strong in this region.
Southern and coastal dialects, Appalachia, and related regions
Southwestern (16) and South Midland, Southern, Appalachian families encompass many regional varieties with deep roots in historic settlement patterns; examples of regional features include influence from Spanish in the Southwest and a wide array of vocabulary across the Deep South and Appalachia.
Ocracoke (26): a coastal North Carolina dialect noted in regional maps.
Smoky Mountain (25): part of Appalachian linguistic area; intricate vowel shifts and consonant patterns typical of the region.
Coastal Southern, Gulf Southern, Louisiana: coastal and Gulf regions with distinct features and vocabularies; Louisiana includes Cajun influences.
Virginia Piedmont (19/18) and Ozark (17): mid-Atlantic and central U.S. corridors with unique local forms.
Gullah (22) and Gullah-related terms; distinct African American language heritage in coastal South Carolina and Georgia.
Others noted on maps include Ozark, Appalachian, and the broader Southern regional families.
Notable linguistic features and examples across regions
New England Eastern: R-dropping with a twist (some post-vowel R addition); strong examples from Harvard area culture.
Boston Urban: social-layering with distinct local forms; notable in pop culture references.
New York City: complex vowel and consonant shifts; Brooklyn variants; strong iconic phrases and filmic representations.
Inland Northern: doughnut terminology differences (friedcakes) as a marker of regional identity.
San Francisco Urban and Mission dialect: cross-coastal northern influences; preservation of urban mission speech patterns.
Upper Midwestern: jelly doughnuts called "bismarks" in some subdialects; Midwestern twang is a recognized characteristic.
Pacific Northwest: Chinook Jargon legacy persists; high muckamuck as an echo of historical contact.
Pacific Southwest: pay dirt, pan out, goner; influence of Hollywood in slang and media; Valley Girl/Surfer Dude registers in the 1980s.
Southwestern: Spanish linguistic influence through everyday vocabulary (caballero, cantina, frijoles, madre, etc.).
Gullah and Gulf Southern: African American linguistic heritage; Louisiana’s unique Creole-influenced forms.
Practical implications for learning and assessment
There is no single correct form of English; success in communication depends on contextual appropriateness and mutual intelligibility within a social group.
Awareness of dialectal variation is essential for effective communication, empathy, and avoiding biased judgments about intelligence or education based on speech.
Educational strategies may emphasize a prestige dialect for formal settings, while recognizing and valuing native dialects in informal contexts.
Language policies and attitudes toward dialects can influence language vitality, identity, and social cohesion.
Summary of key terms to memorize
Dialect vs. accent vs. language vs. idiolect
Pidgin vs. Creole: simplified contact language vs. creolized native language
Jargon: specialized vocabulary within a field
Network Standard: a widely broadcast, standardized form of a language used across a country
Ebonics: social dialect associated with African American communities; controversy over its status as a language or dialect
Prestige dialects vs. local dialects: social judgments tied to dialect features
Examples of regional terms: doughnuts vs. friedcakes, pay dirt, goner, high muckamuck, etc.
Quick reference examples from the transcript
Phrases illustrating pidgin origins and simplified structure:
"Me Tarzan, you Jane" (a simplified, child-like construction)
The word origins and examples for regional dialect features:
New England Eastern: "Pahk the cah in Hahvuhd yahd"; "Pepperidge Fahm remembuhs"
New York City: airing of R after vowels, TH → D, and phrases like "Dey sell tirlets on doity-doid street"; "fugedaboudit"
Inland Northern: doughnuts referred to as "friedcakes"
San Francisco Urban: Mission dialect similar to New York City in certain aspects
Pacific Northwest: Chinook Jargon remnants like "high muckamuck"
Southwestern Spanish influence: words such as "caballero, cantina, frijoles, madre, tortilla"
Valley Girl/Surfer Dude: iconic slang from 1970s–80s media influence