Nigeria Study Notes

Nigeria Historical Development

Nigeria on a Map

  • Nigeria is located in Africa, bordering the South Atlantic Ocean.
  • It is positioned near the Mediterranean Sea and the Middle East.
  • Key geographic markers include the Tropic of Cancer and the Equator.

Nigeria: Closer on a Map

  • Key cities and towns include Kano, Kaduna, Abuja, Lagos, and Port Harcourt.
  • Major rivers include the Niger River and the Benue River.
  • Neighboring countries include Benin and Cameroon.

Nigeria Ethnic Divide

  • The principal linguistic groups include Hausa and Fulani, Yoruba, Igbo, Nupe, Tiv, Ekoi, and Kanuri.
  • Geographic distribution of ethnic groups:
    • Hausa and Fulani: North
    • Yoruba: Southwest
    • Igbo: Southeast

Background

  • Africa's most populous state and largest economy.
  • Federal Presidential system with single executive.
  • Bicameral legislature.
  • Supreme Court with judicial review.
  • Significant ethnic and religious social cleavages.

Geography, Demographics, and Political Culture

  • Geography divides major ethnic groups:
    • Hausa-Fulani (North)
    • Yoruba (Southwest)
    • Igbo (Southeast)
  • Oil wealth is concentrated in the south (Niger Delta), driving economic inequality and conflict over revenue sharing.

Geography

  • North-South Divide:
    • North: Less developed, more rural, predominantly Muslim.
    • South: More urbanized, wealthier, more religious diversity.
  • Abuja: Nigeria’s Forward Capital
    • Moved from coastal Lagos to central Abuja in 1991.
    • Aimed to reduce ethnic favoritism and unify the nation geographically.

Deforestation in Nigeria 1981 - 2020

  • Visual representation of deforestation from 1981 to 2020, showing a transition from dense vegetation to sparse or no vegetation in some areas.

Niger Delta

  • The oil-producing part of Nigeria.
  • Questions about how oil money is spent have led to militant groups fighting for control or autonomy.

Demographics

  • Home to ~250 ethnic groups.
  • Major ethnic groups:
    • Hausa and Fulani: Mostly Muslim, located in the North (27%).
    • Igbo (or Ibo): Mostly Christian, located in the Southeast (15%).
    • Yoruba: Divided between Christian, Muslim, and local animist faiths, located in the Southwest (20%).

Age demographics

  • 43% of the population is under the age of 14.
  • Only 5% of the population is over 60.
  • By 2050, the UN projects Nigeria to be the 3rd most populated country in the world.
  • Slight Muslim majority, but almost evenly split with the Christian population.

Historical Development of the State

  • Three eras: Pre-Colonial, Colonial, Independence
  • Pre-Colonial (1100-1860):
    • Hausa kingdom formed in the North.
    • Yoruba kingdom of Oyo in the South.
    • Roots of today’s dominant ethnic groups.
    • Islam's first important impact via North Africa and the Middle East.

Historical Development of the State

  • Indirect Rule (1900–1960):
    • Britain ruled through local leaders, especially in the north, preserving traditional power structures while controlling policy and the economy.
    • Divide and Rule: Colonial rule deepened ethnic and regional divisions, setting the stage for post-independence conflict.
    • Economic Focus: British exploited Nigeria’s resources (especially agriculture and later oil), building infrastructure mainly to support exports—not development.
    • Western Education & Elites: Southern regions, especially the Yoruba and Igbo areas, had more access to Western education
    • Legacy: Left behind a fragmented national identity, centralized government system, and uneven development—challenges that still shape Nigeria today.

Historical Development of the State: Independence (1960)

  • Nigeria gained independence from Britain on October 1, 1960.
  • Adopted a parliamentary system modeled after the UK.
  • Marked the start of the First Republic.
  • Nigeria has experienced four major political regimes: First to Fourth Republic.
  • The First Republic (1963–1966) collapsed after a military coup.
  • Frequent military governments and dictatorships followed.
  • Civilian rule restored in 1999 with the start of the Fourth Republic.

Civil War

  • Sparked by the Igbo secession attempt to form the Republic of Biafra.
  • Caused by deep ethnic and political tensions.
  • Resulted in millions of deaths from war and famine.
  • Led to long-lasting ethnic divisions and Igbo nationalism.

Military Government in Nigeria

  • How It Worked
    • Came to power through coups d’état—not democratic elections.
    • Run by military generals, who ruled as authoritarian heads of state.
    • Used military decrees instead of laws passed by a legislature.
  • Structure of Power
    • Power concentrated in the executive branch (the Head of State).
    • No checks and balances—judiciary and legislature were sidelined or suspended.
    • Ruling councils made up of military officers acted as advisory or policy bodies.

Historical Development of the State: Abacha Regime

  • Authoritarian Regime
    • Seized power in a military coup in 1993.
    • Ruled with absolute power, dissolved democratic institutions.
    • Known for severe human rights abuses and corruption.
  • Suppression of Dissent
    • Cracked down on opposition, activists, and the press.
    • Arrested political leaders, including President-elect Moshood Abiola (1993 election annulled).

Execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa (1995)

  • Ken Saro-Wiwa, environmental activist and writer, led the Ogoni Movement against oil exploitation in the Niger Delta.
  • Abacha’s regime executed Saro-Wiwa and 8 others, drawing international outrage and sanctions.
  • Corruption & Wealth Theft
    • Abacha looted an estimated 2–52–5 billion in public funds.
    • His regime was one of the most financially corrupt in African history.
  • Sudden Death (1998)
    • Died unexpectedly of a heart attack (possibly poisoned) in 1998.
    • His death paved the way for a transition back to civilian rule in 1999.

The Fourth Republic (1999-Present)

  • New Democratic Era Begins
    • 1999: Constitution of the Second Republic revived.
    • Held presidential elections — Olusegun Obasanjo (former general) elected.
    • Marked the start of the Fourth Republic and end of military rule.
  • Obasanjo and the People’s Democratic Party (PDP) promoted “zoning”:
    • Power rotates between the north (Muslim) and south (Christian).
    • Aimed to reduce ethnic and religious conflict.

Examples of Democratic Consolidation under the Fourth Republic

  • 2006: Obasanjo’s attempt for a third term rejected by the National Assembly — seen as a win for democracy.
  • 2007: Yar’Adua elected (northern Muslim); peaceful transition.
  • 2010: After Yar’Adua’s death, VP Goodluck Jonathan (southern Christian) becomes president.
  • 2015: Historic moment — Jonathan loses to Muhammadu Buhari (APC), marking the first peaceful transfer of power between parties.

Recent Elections

  • 2019: Buhari re-elected amid some controversy over fairness and turnout.
  • 2023: Bola Tinubu (APC) elected president.
    • Faced legal challenges and opposition protests, but the transition continued peacefully.

State Institutions

  • Nigeria’s political system is based on the U.S. presidential system and shares many of the same powers/organization (with some slight changes).

State Institutions: The Executive

  • President = Head of State & Head of Government
    • Combines ceremonial and executive powers in one role.
    • Current President: Bola Tinubu (elected in 2023).
    • Term: 4 years, maximum of 2 terms.

State Institutions: The Executive

  • Key Powers of the President
    • Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces
    • Proposes laws and signs/vetoes bills
    • Appoints:
      • Ministers and top officials
      • Ambassadors
      • Nearly all public administrators
    • Receives foreign ambassadors, makes treaties
    • Can issue pardons and commute sentences

State Institutions: The Executive Federal Character Principle

  • Aimed at ethnic and regional representation in government
  • Requires appointments from all states/regions to reflect Nigeria’s diversity
  • Seeks to prevent dominance by any single ethnic or regional group
  • Applies to civil service, military, and public institutions

Pros:

  • Clarity and accountability
  • Efficiency in decision-making
  • Unity
Cons:
  • Concentration of power
  • Overburdened leader

State Institutions: Bureaucracy

  • Corruption & Inefficiency
    • Long criticized for being bloated, inefficient, and corrupt.
  • Prebendalism
    • Officials view positions as personal entitlements ("prebends").
    • Use public office to distribute state resources to supporters or ethnic groups.
  • Parastatals
    • Government-owned companies that operate like private firms.
    • Controlled by the state — top officials appointed by the president.
    • Example: Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN).

State Institution: Legislative

  • Bicameral Structure
    • House of Representatives (Lower House)
    • Senate (Upper House)
    • Members serve renewable 4-year terms
    • Since 2015, elections held same day as presidential (though not always followed)
  • Shared Powers (Both Houses)
    • Pass bills (both must approve)
    • Override presidential veto
    • Amend the constitution
    • Conduct oversight of executive branch
    • Limited independence and weak institutional checks

State Institution: Legislative

  • House of Representatives Only
    • Can introduce revenue (money) bills
    • Initiate impeachment process
  • Senate Only
    • Confirms presidential appointments:
      • Ministers, judges, ambassadors
    • Ratifies treaties
    • Holds impeachment trials

Independent Legislature Reality Check

  • Often seen as a rubber stamp for the executive
  • Limited independence and weak institutional checks
  • Widely criticized for corruption and lack of transparency
  • Known as the highest-paid legislature in the world
  • Minimal legislative productivity in return

Judicial Branch

  • Dual Court System
    • Federal courts and state-level courts operate separately
    • Reflects Nigeria’s federal structure and legal diversity
  • Supreme Court (Highest Court)
    • Has judicial review (can declare laws/actions unconstitutional)
    • Justices appointed by the President, with:
      • Recommendation from the National Judicial Council
      • Confirmation by the Senate
    • Mandatory retirement at age 70

Legal Foundations

  • Based on common law tradition (inherited from British colonial rule)
  • Sharia Law in Northern Nigeria
    • Applied in state courts in majority-Muslim northern states
    • Part of a parallel system alongside common law
    • Covers personal matters (marriage, divorce, inheritance, etc.)
    • Modeled after Islamic tradition (also used in countries like Iran)

State Institutions: Military

  • Powerful Political Institution
    • Long history of military rule (1966–1999)
    • Top generals ruled as heads of state, making all major policy decisions
    • "Military in government": officers who held political power
    • "Military in barracks": rank-and-file expected to follow orders
    • The legacy of military involvement in politics still influences civilian government
  • President = Commander-in-Chief
  • ~500,000 troops — one of Africa’s largest militaries
  • Still a respected path for economic advancement, especially for young men
  • Faces challenges from Boko Haram, ISWAP, and banditry in the north
  • Mixed record on protection:
    • Successes in some areas, but
    • Criticized for slow response, corruption, and human rights abuses

Nigeria Political System

  • Nigeria is a federal state.
  • The federal system was created in response to ethnic diversity in Nigeria.
  • Abuja, Nigeria’s capital, was established in the center of the country to lessen regional differences.
  • Consequence of the federal system can be seen in different legal systems in different states of Nigeria.
  • Federalism in Nigeria is a tool to hold together a deeply diverse nation, promote stability, and allow for more responsive local governance.

Linkage Institutions: Political Parties

  • Nigeria is a transitional democracy.
  • Freedom House characterizes it as “partly free”.
  • Ranks 121st out of 167 countries in the Economist Intelligence Unit Democracy Index.

Linkage Institutions: Elections

  • National level: Nigerians vote for president and representatives in the House and Senate.
  • Voter turnout: 32% in 2019.
  • Also vote at the state level for a governor and state legislature, and for mayor.

Linkage Institutions: Presidential Elections

  • Direct Election
    • President is directly elected by the people
    • Serves a 4-year term, max 2 terms
  • Winning Requirements
    • Must win a plurality of the national vote
    • AND secure at least 25% of votes in two-thirds of Nigeria’s 36 states → Ensures broad national support

Linkage Institutions: Elections

  • Senate (Upper House)
    • 109 members total:
      • 3 per state (from 36 states). Three districts in each state=one senator each district
      • 1 from the Federal Capital Territory (Abuja)
    • Elected by plurality (FPTP).
    • Serve 4-year terms
  • House of Representatives (Lower House)
    • 360 members
    • Elected in single-member districts (SMDs)
    • Also uses plurality (FPTP) voting
    • Serve 4-year terms

Elections

  • Violence & Intimidation
    • Elections often marked by violence, fraud, and voter intimidation
    • Example: 2011 election – over 800 people killed in post-election violence
  • Corruption & Delays
    • Accusations of vote rigging, ballot box snatching, and bribery
    • 2019 presidential election delayed one week due to logistical failures

INEC

  • Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) created in 1998
  • Oversees voter registration, election logistics, and result certification
  • Similar to Mexico’s INE in its role—but still struggles with full independence and efficiency

Party System

  • Two-Party Dominance (Since 2015)
    • Nigeria operates as a two-party system
    • Smaller parties exist but rarely win national offices

PDP People’s Democratic Party (PDP)

  • Founded in 1998
  • Dominated politics from 1999–2015
  • Traditionally draws support from the South and Middle Belt
  • Promotes centrist, pro-business policies with federalist leanings
  • Known for zoning (rotating candidates between regions and religions)

Linkage Institutions: Political Parties

  • All Progressives Congress (APC)
    • Formed in 2013 as a merger of opposition parties
    • First party to defeat PDP (Buhari’s 2015 victory)
    • Stronger in the North and Southwest
    • Emphasizes anti-corruption, centralized governance, and national security

Linkage Institutions: Interest Groups

  • Modern Nigeria is closer to pluralism than to state corporatism.
  • Most successful interest groups are those that represent ethnic groups.

Civil Society

  • Growing since the end of military rule (1999)
  • Includes NGOs, religious orgs, labor unions, student groups
  • Often fill gaps in governance and push for transparency, rights, and services

Social Movements

  • Nigeria has a strongly independent civil society, but few Nigerians participate in these organizations and political activity in general.
  • Issue-based minority associations have formed, especially in the Niger Delta.

Social Movements

  • MOSOP (Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People)
    • Focus: Environmental and human rights issues in the Niger Delta
    • Led by Ken Saro-Wiwa; targeted the devastating impact of oil extraction on the region
    • Saro-Wiwa executed in 1995, drawing global attention
  • MEND (Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta) and Niger Delta Avengers
    • Focus: Armed resistance against oil companies exploiting the Niger Delta and seeking autonomy for the Niger Delta
    • Protests against pollution and environmental degradation
    • Attacked oil infrastructure in the region, demanding a fairer share of oil revenues

Social Movements

  • IPOB (Indigenous People of Biafra)
    • Focus: Secession of the Igbo ethnic group and the re-establishment of the Biafra Republic
    • Often clashes with the Nigerian government, viewed as a terrorist group by the government
  • #EndSARS Movement
    • Focus: Protests against police brutality, especially the SARS unit
    • Led by Nigerian youth, it led to nationwide protests in 2020 and a global call for reform
  • Boko Haram
    • Focus: Terrorist organization advocating for the establishment of an Islamic state
    • Known for violent insurgencies in the northeast, kidnappings, and attacks on civilians and the military
    • Labeled a terrorist group by the Nigerian government and many international organizations

Linkage Institutions: Mass Media

  • State-Run vs. Independent Media
    • State-run media: Nigerian Television Authority (NTA), Radio Nigeria, etc.
    • Independent media: A growing number of private newspapers, radio, and TV stations
  • Internet and Social Media
    • Generally not censored, allowing for diverse opinions and discussions
    • Twitter ban in 2021: Government temporarily banned Twitter after the platform removed a tweet from President Buhari
      • Ban lifted in 2022 after negotiations
  • Challenges to Media Freedom
    • Government pressure on journalists and media outlets
    • Harassment, arrests, and even violence against reporters
    • Censorship and self-censorship due to fear of reprisal
      • Example: 2019/2020 saw multiple attacks on journalists covering protests and sensitive issues

Social Cleavages

  • Three social cleavages that coincide: Ethnicity, religion, and region.
  • Ethnicity
    • Over 250 ethnic groups in Nigeria, with the three largest being:
      • Hausa-Fulani (mainly in the North)
      • Yoruba (mainly in the Southwest)
      • Igbo (mainly in the Southeast)
    • Each ethnic group has a distinct identity, language, and cultural practices

Social Cleavages: Religion

  • Muslims make up 54%, mostly in the North
  • Christians make up 45%, mainly in the South
  • Sharia Law is applied in northern states
  • Boko Haram: Terrorist group seeking to impose Islamic rule and targeting the Christian South

Social Cleavages: Region

  • North-South Divide:
    • Southern states are the richest (oil-producing region)
    • Northern states are the poorest, with high levels of poverty and underdevelopment

Government Response

  • Federalism: Nigeria’s federal structure is designed to provide autonomy to different regions, attempting to balance the interests of diverse ethnic and religious groups.
  • Zoning: A political practice where the presidency and other top offices rotate between the North and South to ensure fair representation. (this was only done by PDP and not an official practice)
  • Quota System (Federal Character Principle): Used in education and government appointments to ensure ethnic and regional balance in appointments.
  • Challenges: Tensions persist due to ethnic rivalry, religious conflict, and regional disparities in wealth.

Civil Liberties and Civil Rights

  • Religious & Ethnic Bias undermines freedom of expression and association
  • Women face discrimination in education, employment, and political representation
  • LGBT+ individuals face pervasive discrimination and legal penalties for same-sex relationships
  • Nigeria is considered "Partly Free" due to ongoing civil liberties and rights issues

Economic Policy

  • Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI)
    • Goal: Move beyond reliance on agriculture
    • Focus: Promote local industries and reduce dependence on imports
    • Challenges: Inefficiency, lack of infrastructure, and underdeveloped industrial base
  • Rentier State (1970s)
    • Oil boom in the 1970s transformed Nigeria into a rentier state, heavily dependent on oil revenues
    • Oil reliance led to economic volatility when oil prices crashed

Economic Liberalization & SAP (1980s)

  • Structural Adjustment Programs (SAP) imposed by the IMF/World Bank
    • Austerity measures, privatization, and economic liberalization in response to the oil market crash
    • Negative effects: Increased poverty, unemployment, and social unrest
  • Globalization & Nigeria’s Economy
    • Globalization has led to increased foreign investment and trade
    • Nigeria’s economy remains oil-dependent, facing challenges with diversification, inequality, and job creation
    • The impact of global oil price fluctuations on Nigeria's economy remains significant

Economic Policy

  • Special Economic Zones (SEZs)
    • Goal: Attract foreign direct investment and promote economic liberalization
    • Challenge: Unlike China, Nigeria has not seen significant success in creating a strong manufacturing base
  • ECOWAS (Economic Community of West African States)
    • 15 West African countries working toward economic integration
    • Goals: Create a free trade zone and promote regional development
    • Challenges: Nigeria’s participation means a loss of sovereignty over trade policy but provides an opportunity to expand exports beyond oil

Economic Policy

  • WAMZ (West African Monetary Zone)
    • Common currency goal for West African countries, though not yet realized
  • Global Memberships
    • WTO: Nigeria is a member of the World Trade Organization, engaging in global trade negotiations
    • OPEC: Nigeria’s significant role in oil production within the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries

Economic Issues

  • Lack of Economic Growth & Its Effect on Democratization
    • Stagnant economic growth has led to unemployment, poverty, and economic inequality
    • Economic struggles fuel discontent, leading to political instability and undermining democratic institutions
    • Limited economic diversification reinforces Nigeria’s dependency on oil, affecting democratic accountability and governance quality
  • Nigeria’s Informal Economy
    • A large segment of Nigeria's workforce is involved in the informal economy (e.g., street vendors, unregistered small businesses)
    • Challenges:
      • Limited social security or legal protections for workers
      • Difficult to tax and regulate, reducing government revenue
      • Contributes to poverty and inequality

Public Policy: Corruption

  • Corruption is the abuse of power for personal gain, often involving bribery, embezzlement, or misuse of public funds.
  • Corruption in Nigeria
    • Politicians among the highest paid in the world
    • Theft of state funds is widespread
    • Nigerians pay over 44 billion annually in bribes
    • A large informal economy contributes to lack of transparency and weak oversight

Corruption

  • Anti-Corruption Efforts
    • President Buhari prioritized fighting corruption
    • Established the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC)
      • Investigates and arrests government officials involved in corruption
      • Some high-profile prosecutions, but enforcement is uneven

Policy: Religious Conflict

  • Roughly 50% Muslim (mostly in the North) and 50% Christian (mostly in the South)
  • Middle Belt Conflicts
    • Muslim Fulani herders vs. Christian farmers
    • Clashes over land, grazing rights, and religion
    • Violence often driven by ethnic, economic, and religious factors
  • Boko Haram Insurgency
  • Government Response
    • Nigerian military launched counterinsurgency campaigns
    • Joint Task Forces and partnerships with neighboring countries
    • Mixed results: Some successes, but ongoing instability, especially in Borno and Yobe states

Social Welfare

  • Limited Government Support
    • Social safety nets are underfunded and inconsistently delivered
    • Nigeria spends a small percentage of its GDP on social services compared to global averages
  • National Social Investment Program (NSIP):
    • Cash transfers to poor households
  • Healthcare:
    • National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) provides limited access to healthcare
  • Corruption and mismanagement reduce effectiveness

Policy: Population growth

  • Rapid Population Growth
    • Nigeria’s population has grown over 300% since independence in 1960
    • Fertility rate: ~5.55.5 children per woman — among the highest in the world
    • Over 220 million people, expected to double by 2050
  • Education & Human Capital
    • Government has expanded education access and job training programs
    • Literacy rate: ~60% (lower for women)
    • Ongoing efforts to improve girls’ education and rural access
  • Brain Drain
    • Many Nigerian students pursue higher education abroad
    • Skilled professionals often emigrate for better opportunities
  • NEEDS (National), SEEDS (State), and LEEDS (Local):
    • Aimed at promoting economic empowerment, poverty reduction, and infrastructure development
    • Mixed success due to funding issues and governance challenges

Public Policy: Environment

  • Oil in the Niger Delta
    • Environmental Damage: Widespread pollution from oil spills and gas flaring
    • Health Issues: Increased respiratory diseases and water contamination in local communities
    • Environmental Activism: Groups like MOSOP (Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People) push for accountability and clean-up
  • Urbanization & Deforestation
    • Rapid urbanization has led to deforestation and increased flooding
    • Cities like Lagos struggle with overcrowding and inadequate waste management

Public Policy: Environment

  • Climate Change & Desertification
    • Desertification is worsening in the Northern regions due to climate change
    • Impact: Loss of arable land, water scarcity, and displacement of communities
  • Environmental Initiatives
    • Great Green Wall Project: Aiming to plant trees across 1,000 miles of northern Nigeria to combat desertification
    • Budget Constraints and lack of effective implementation hinder full success