Nigeria is located in Africa, bordering the South Atlantic Ocean.
It is positioned near the Mediterranean Sea and the Middle East.
Key geographic markers include the Tropic of Cancer and the Equator.
Nigeria: Closer on a Map
Key cities and towns include Kano, Kaduna, Abuja, Lagos, and Port Harcourt.
Major rivers include the Niger River and the Benue River.
Neighboring countries include Benin and Cameroon.
Nigeria Ethnic Divide
The principal linguistic groups include Hausa and Fulani, Yoruba, Igbo, Nupe, Tiv, Ekoi, and Kanuri.
Geographic distribution of ethnic groups:
Hausa and Fulani: North
Yoruba: Southwest
Igbo: Southeast
Background
Africa's most populous state and largest economy.
Federal Presidential system with single executive.
Bicameral legislature.
Supreme Court with judicial review.
Significant ethnic and religious social cleavages.
Geography, Demographics, and Political Culture
Geography divides major ethnic groups:
Hausa-Fulani (North)
Yoruba (Southwest)
Igbo (Southeast)
Oil wealth is concentrated in the south (Niger Delta), driving economic inequality and conflict over revenue sharing.
Geography
North-South Divide:
North: Less developed, more rural, predominantly Muslim.
South: More urbanized, wealthier, more religious diversity.
Abuja: Nigeria’s Forward Capital
Moved from coastal Lagos to central Abuja in 1991.
Aimed to reduce ethnic favoritism and unify the nation geographically.
Deforestation in Nigeria 1981 - 2020
Visual representation of deforestation from 1981 to 2020, showing a transition from dense vegetation to sparse or no vegetation in some areas.
Niger Delta
The oil-producing part of Nigeria.
Questions about how oil money is spent have led to militant groups fighting for control or autonomy.
Demographics
Home to ~250 ethnic groups.
Major ethnic groups:
Hausa and Fulani: Mostly Muslim, located in the North (27%).
Igbo (or Ibo): Mostly Christian, located in the Southeast (15%).
Yoruba: Divided between Christian, Muslim, and local animist faiths, located in the Southwest (20%).
Age demographics
43% of the population is under the age of 14.
Only 5% of the population is over 60.
By 2050, the UN projects Nigeria to be the 3rd most populated country in the world.
Slight Muslim majority, but almost evenly split with the Christian population.
Historical Development of the State
Three eras: Pre-Colonial, Colonial, Independence
Pre-Colonial (1100-1860):
Hausa kingdom formed in the North.
Yoruba kingdom of Oyo in the South.
Roots of today’s dominant ethnic groups.
Islam's first important impact via North Africa and the Middle East.
Historical Development of the State
Indirect Rule (1900–1960):
Britain ruled through local leaders, especially in the north, preserving traditional power structures while controlling policy and the economy.
Divide and Rule: Colonial rule deepened ethnic and regional divisions, setting the stage for post-independence conflict.
Economic Focus: British exploited Nigeria’s resources (especially agriculture and later oil), building infrastructure mainly to support exports—not development.
Western Education & Elites: Southern regions, especially the Yoruba and Igbo areas, had more access to Western education
Legacy: Left behind a fragmented national identity, centralized government system, and uneven development—challenges that still shape Nigeria today.
Historical Development of the State: Independence (1960)
Nigeria gained independence from Britain on October 1, 1960.
Adopted a parliamentary system modeled after the UK.
Marked the start of the First Republic.
Nigeria has experienced four major political regimes: First to Fourth Republic.
The First Republic (1963–1966) collapsed after a military coup.
Frequent military governments and dictatorships followed.
Civilian rule restored in 1999 with the start of the Fourth Republic.
Civil War
Sparked by the Igbo secession attempt to form the Republic of Biafra.
Caused by deep ethnic and political tensions.
Resulted in millions of deaths from war and famine.
Led to long-lasting ethnic divisions and Igbo nationalism.
Military Government in Nigeria
How It Worked
Came to power through coups d’état—not democratic elections.
Run by military generals, who ruled as authoritarian heads of state.
Used military decrees instead of laws passed by a legislature.
Structure of Power
Power concentrated in the executive branch (the Head of State).
No checks and balances—judiciary and legislature were sidelined or suspended.
Ruling councils made up of military officers acted as advisory or policy bodies.
Historical Development of the State: Abacha Regime
Authoritarian Regime
Seized power in a military coup in 1993.
Ruled with absolute power, dissolved democratic institutions.
Known for severe human rights abuses and corruption.
Suppression of Dissent
Cracked down on opposition, activists, and the press.
Arrested political leaders, including President-elect Moshood Abiola (1993 election annulled).
Execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa (1995)
Ken Saro-Wiwa, environmental activist and writer, led the Ogoni Movement against oil exploitation in the Niger Delta.
Abacha’s regime executed Saro-Wiwa and 8 others, drawing international outrage and sanctions.
Corruption & Wealth Theft
Abacha looted an estimated 2–5 billion in public funds.
His regime was one of the most financially corrupt in African history.
Sudden Death (1998)
Died unexpectedly of a heart attack (possibly poisoned) in 1998.
His death paved the way for a transition back to civilian rule in 1999.
The Fourth Republic (1999-Present)
New Democratic Era Begins
1999: Constitution of the Second Republic revived.
Held presidential elections — Olusegun Obasanjo (former general) elected.
Marked the start of the Fourth Republic and end of military rule.
Obasanjo and the People’s Democratic Party (PDP) promoted “zoning”:
Power rotates between the north (Muslim) and south (Christian).
Aimed to reduce ethnic and religious conflict.
Examples of Democratic Consolidation under the Fourth Republic
2006: Obasanjo’s attempt for a third term rejected by the National Assembly — seen as a win for democracy.
2007: Yar’Adua elected (northern Muslim); peaceful transition.
2010: After Yar’Adua’s death, VP Goodluck Jonathan (southern Christian) becomes president.
2015: Historic moment — Jonathan loses to Muhammadu Buhari (APC), marking the first peaceful transfer of power between parties.
Recent Elections
2019: Buhari re-elected amid some controversy over fairness and turnout.
2023: Bola Tinubu (APC) elected president.
Faced legal challenges and opposition protests, but the transition continued peacefully.
State Institutions
Nigeria’s political system is based on the U.S. presidential system and shares many of the same powers/organization (with some slight changes).
State Institutions: The Executive
President = Head of State & Head of Government
Combines ceremonial and executive powers in one role.
Current President: Bola Tinubu (elected in 2023).
Term: 4 years, maximum of 2 terms.
State Institutions: The Executive
Key Powers of the President
Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces
Proposes laws and signs/vetoes bills
Appoints:
Ministers and top officials
Ambassadors
Nearly all public administrators
Receives foreign ambassadors, makes treaties
Can issue pardons and commute sentences
State Institutions: The Executive Federal Character Principle
Aimed at ethnic and regional representation in government
Requires appointments from all states/regions to reflect Nigeria’s diversity
Seeks to prevent dominance by any single ethnic or regional group
Applies to civil service, military, and public institutions
Pros:
Clarity and accountability
Efficiency in decision-making
Unity
Cons:
Concentration of power
Overburdened leader
State Institutions: Bureaucracy
Corruption & Inefficiency
Long criticized for being bloated, inefficient, and corrupt.
Prebendalism
Officials view positions as personal entitlements ("prebends").
Use public office to distribute state resources to supporters or ethnic groups.
Parastatals
Government-owned companies that operate like private firms.
Controlled by the state — top officials appointed by the president.
Example: Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN).
State Institution: Legislative
Bicameral Structure
House of Representatives (Lower House)
Senate (Upper House)
Members serve renewable 4-year terms
Since 2015, elections held same day as presidential (though not always followed)
Shared Powers (Both Houses)
Pass bills (both must approve)
Override presidential veto
Amend the constitution
Conduct oversight of executive branch
Limited independence and weak institutional checks
State Institution: Legislative
House of Representatives Only
Can introduce revenue (money) bills
Initiate impeachment process
Senate Only
Confirms presidential appointments:
Ministers, judges, ambassadors
Ratifies treaties
Holds impeachment trials
Independent Legislature Reality Check
Often seen as a rubber stamp for the executive
Limited independence and weak institutional checks
Widely criticized for corruption and lack of transparency
Known as the highest-paid legislature in the world
Minimal legislative productivity in return
Judicial Branch
Dual Court System
Federal courts and state-level courts operate separately
Reflects Nigeria’s federal structure and legal diversity
Supreme Court (Highest Court)
Has judicial review (can declare laws/actions unconstitutional)
Justices appointed by the President, with:
Recommendation from the National Judicial Council
Confirmation by the Senate
Mandatory retirement at age 70
Legal Foundations
Based on common law tradition (inherited from British colonial rule)
Sharia Law in Northern Nigeria
Applied in state courts in majority-Muslim northern states
Part of a parallel system alongside common law
Covers personal matters (marriage, divorce, inheritance, etc.)
Modeled after Islamic tradition (also used in countries like Iran)
State Institutions: Military
Powerful Political Institution
Long history of military rule (1966–1999)
Top generals ruled as heads of state, making all major policy decisions
"Military in government": officers who held political power
"Military in barracks": rank-and-file expected to follow orders
The legacy of military involvement in politics still influences civilian government
President = Commander-in-Chief
~500,000 troops — one of Africa’s largest militaries
Still a respected path for economic advancement, especially for young men
Faces challenges from Boko Haram, ISWAP, and banditry in the north
Mixed record on protection:
Successes in some areas, but
Criticized for slow response, corruption, and human rights abuses
Nigeria Political System
Nigeria is a federal state.
The federal system was created in response to ethnic diversity in Nigeria.
Abuja, Nigeria’s capital, was established in the center of the country to lessen regional differences.
Consequence of the federal system can be seen in different legal systems in different states of Nigeria.
Federalism in Nigeria is a tool to hold together a deeply diverse nation, promote stability, and allow for more responsive local governance.
Linkage Institutions: Political Parties
Nigeria is a transitional democracy.
Freedom House characterizes it as “partly free”.
Ranks 121st out of 167 countries in the Economist Intelligence Unit Democracy Index.
Linkage Institutions: Elections
National level: Nigerians vote for president and representatives in the House and Senate.
Voter turnout: 32% in 2019.
Also vote at the state level for a governor and state legislature, and for mayor.
Linkage Institutions: Presidential Elections
Direct Election
President is directly elected by the people
Serves a 4-year term, max 2 terms
Winning Requirements
Must win a plurality of the national vote
AND secure at least 25% of votes in two-thirds of Nigeria’s 36 states → Ensures broad national support
Linkage Institutions: Elections
Senate (Upper House)
109 members total:
3 per state (from 36 states). Three districts in each state=one senator each district
1 from the Federal Capital Territory (Abuja)
Elected by plurality (FPTP).
Serve 4-year terms
House of Representatives (Lower House)
360 members
Elected in single-member districts (SMDs)
Also uses plurality (FPTP) voting
Serve 4-year terms
Elections
Violence & Intimidation
Elections often marked by violence, fraud, and voter intimidation
Example: 2011 election – over 800 people killed in post-election violence
Corruption & Delays
Accusations of vote rigging, ballot box snatching, and bribery
2019 presidential election delayed one week due to logistical failures
INEC
Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) created in 1998
Oversees voter registration, election logistics, and result certification
Similar to Mexico’s INE in its role—but still struggles with full independence and efficiency
Party System
Two-Party Dominance (Since 2015)
Nigeria operates as a two-party system
Smaller parties exist but rarely win national offices
PDP People’s Democratic Party (PDP)
Founded in 1998
Dominated politics from 1999–2015
Traditionally draws support from the South and Middle Belt
Promotes centrist, pro-business policies with federalist leanings
Known for zoning (rotating candidates between regions and religions)
Linkage Institutions: Political Parties
All Progressives Congress (APC)
Formed in 2013 as a merger of opposition parties
First party to defeat PDP (Buhari’s 2015 victory)
Stronger in the North and Southwest
Emphasizes anti-corruption, centralized governance, and national security
Linkage Institutions: Interest Groups
Modern Nigeria is closer to pluralism than to state corporatism.
Most successful interest groups are those that represent ethnic groups.
Civil Society
Growing since the end of military rule (1999)
Includes NGOs, religious orgs, labor unions, student groups
Often fill gaps in governance and push for transparency, rights, and services
Social Movements
Nigeria has a strongly independent civil society, but few Nigerians participate in these organizations and political activity in general.
Issue-based minority associations have formed, especially in the Niger Delta.
Social Movements
MOSOP (Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People)
Focus: Environmental and human rights issues in the Niger Delta
Led by Ken Saro-Wiwa; targeted the devastating impact of oil extraction on the region
Saro-Wiwa executed in 1995, drawing global attention
MEND (Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta) and Niger Delta Avengers
Focus: Armed resistance against oil companies exploiting the Niger Delta and seeking autonomy for the Niger Delta
Protests against pollution and environmental degradation
Attacked oil infrastructure in the region, demanding a fairer share of oil revenues
Social Movements
IPOB (Indigenous People of Biafra)
Focus: Secession of the Igbo ethnic group and the re-establishment of the Biafra Republic
Often clashes with the Nigerian government, viewed as a terrorist group by the government
#EndSARS Movement
Focus: Protests against police brutality, especially the SARS unit
Led by Nigerian youth, it led to nationwide protests in 2020 and a global call for reform
Boko Haram
Focus: Terrorist organization advocating for the establishment of an Islamic state
Known for violent insurgencies in the northeast, kidnappings, and attacks on civilians and the military
Labeled a terrorist group by the Nigerian government and many international organizations
Linkage Institutions: Mass Media
State-Run vs. Independent Media
State-run media: Nigerian Television Authority (NTA), Radio Nigeria, etc.
Independent media: A growing number of private newspapers, radio, and TV stations
Internet and Social Media
Generally not censored, allowing for diverse opinions and discussions
Twitter ban in 2021: Government temporarily banned Twitter after the platform removed a tweet from President Buhari
Ban lifted in 2022 after negotiations
Challenges to Media Freedom
Government pressure on journalists and media outlets
Harassment, arrests, and even violence against reporters
Censorship and self-censorship due to fear of reprisal
Example: 2019/2020 saw multiple attacks on journalists covering protests and sensitive issues
Social Cleavages
Three social cleavages that coincide: Ethnicity, religion, and region.
Ethnicity
Over 250 ethnic groups in Nigeria, with the three largest being:
Hausa-Fulani (mainly in the North)
Yoruba (mainly in the Southwest)
Igbo (mainly in the Southeast)
Each ethnic group has a distinct identity, language, and cultural practices
Social Cleavages: Religion
Muslims make up 54%, mostly in the North
Christians make up 45%, mainly in the South
Sharia Law is applied in northern states
Boko Haram: Terrorist group seeking to impose Islamic rule and targeting the Christian South
Social Cleavages: Region
North-South Divide:
Southern states are the richest (oil-producing region)
Northern states are the poorest, with high levels of poverty and underdevelopment
Government Response
Federalism: Nigeria’s federal structure is designed to provide autonomy to different regions, attempting to balance the interests of diverse ethnic and religious groups.
Zoning: A political practice where the presidency and other top offices rotate between the North and South to ensure fair representation. (this was only done by PDP and not an official practice)
Quota System (Federal Character Principle): Used in education and government appointments to ensure ethnic and regional balance in appointments.
Challenges: Tensions persist due to ethnic rivalry, religious conflict, and regional disparities in wealth.
Civil Liberties and Civil Rights
Religious & Ethnic Bias undermines freedom of expression and association
Women face discrimination in education, employment, and political representation
LGBT+ individuals face pervasive discrimination and legal penalties for same-sex relationships
Nigeria is considered "Partly Free" due to ongoing civil liberties and rights issues
Economic Policy
Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI)
Goal: Move beyond reliance on agriculture
Focus: Promote local industries and reduce dependence on imports
Challenges: Inefficiency, lack of infrastructure, and underdeveloped industrial base
Rentier State (1970s)
Oil boom in the 1970s transformed Nigeria into a rentier state, heavily dependent on oil revenues
Oil reliance led to economic volatility when oil prices crashed
Economic Liberalization & SAP (1980s)
Structural Adjustment Programs (SAP) imposed by the IMF/World Bank
Austerity measures, privatization, and economic liberalization in response to the oil market crash
Negative effects: Increased poverty, unemployment, and social unrest
Globalization & Nigeria’s Economy
Globalization has led to increased foreign investment and trade
Nigeria’s economy remains oil-dependent, facing challenges with diversification, inequality, and job creation
The impact of global oil price fluctuations on Nigeria's economy remains significant
Economic Policy
Special Economic Zones (SEZs)
Goal: Attract foreign direct investment and promote economic liberalization
Challenge: Unlike China, Nigeria has not seen significant success in creating a strong manufacturing base
ECOWAS (Economic Community of West African States)
15 West African countries working toward economic integration
Goals: Create a free trade zone and promote regional development
Challenges: Nigeria’s participation means a loss of sovereignty over trade policy but provides an opportunity to expand exports beyond oil
Economic Policy
WAMZ (West African Monetary Zone)
Common currency goal for West African countries, though not yet realized
Global Memberships
WTO: Nigeria is a member of the World Trade Organization, engaging in global trade negotiations
OPEC: Nigeria’s significant role in oil production within the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
Economic Issues
Lack of Economic Growth & Its Effect on Democratization
Stagnant economic growth has led to unemployment, poverty, and economic inequality
Economic struggles fuel discontent, leading to political instability and undermining democratic institutions
Limited economic diversification reinforces Nigeria’s dependency on oil, affecting democratic accountability and governance quality
Nigeria’s Informal Economy
A large segment of Nigeria's workforce is involved in the informal economy (e.g., street vendors, unregistered small businesses)
Challenges:
Limited social security or legal protections for workers
Difficult to tax and regulate, reducing government revenue
Contributes to poverty and inequality
Public Policy: Corruption
Corruption is the abuse of power for personal gain, often involving bribery, embezzlement, or misuse of public funds.
Corruption in Nigeria
Politicians among the highest paid in the world
Theft of state funds is widespread
Nigerians pay over 4 billion annually in bribes
A large informal economy contributes to lack of transparency and weak oversight
Corruption
Anti-Corruption Efforts
President Buhari prioritized fighting corruption
Established the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC)
Investigates and arrests government officials involved in corruption
Some high-profile prosecutions, but enforcement is uneven
Policy: Religious Conflict
Roughly 50% Muslim (mostly in the North) and 50% Christian (mostly in the South)
Middle Belt Conflicts
Muslim Fulani herders vs. Christian farmers
Clashes over land, grazing rights, and religion
Violence often driven by ethnic, economic, and religious factors
Boko Haram Insurgency
Government Response
Nigerian military launched counterinsurgency campaigns
Joint Task Forces and partnerships with neighboring countries
Mixed results: Some successes, but ongoing instability, especially in Borno and Yobe states
Social Welfare
Limited Government Support
Social safety nets are underfunded and inconsistently delivered
Nigeria spends a small percentage of its GDP on social services compared to global averages
National Social Investment Program (NSIP):
Cash transfers to poor households
Healthcare:
National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) provides limited access to healthcare
Corruption and mismanagement reduce effectiveness
Policy: Population growth
Rapid Population Growth
Nigeria’s population has grown over 300% since independence in 1960
Fertility rate: ~5.5 children per woman — among the highest in the world
Over 220 million people, expected to double by 2050
Education & Human Capital
Government has expanded education access and job training programs
Literacy rate: ~60% (lower for women)
Ongoing efforts to improve girls’ education and rural access
Brain Drain
Many Nigerian students pursue higher education abroad
Skilled professionals often emigrate for better opportunities
NEEDS (National), SEEDS (State), and LEEDS (Local):
Aimed at promoting economic empowerment, poverty reduction, and infrastructure development
Mixed success due to funding issues and governance challenges
Public Policy: Environment
Oil in the Niger Delta
Environmental Damage: Widespread pollution from oil spills and gas flaring
Health Issues: Increased respiratory diseases and water contamination in local communities
Environmental Activism: Groups like MOSOP (Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People) push for accountability and clean-up
Urbanization & Deforestation
Rapid urbanization has led to deforestation and increased flooding
Cities like Lagos struggle with overcrowding and inadequate waste management
Public Policy: Environment
Climate Change & Desertification
Desertification is worsening in the Northern regions due to climate change
Impact: Loss of arable land, water scarcity, and displacement of communities
Environmental Initiatives
Great Green Wall Project: Aiming to plant trees across 1,000 miles of northern Nigeria to combat desertification
Budget Constraints and lack of effective implementation hinder full success