Florida Highschool Biology EOC F.A.S.T
Properties of Water
What makes up a molecule of water?
Water is made of 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom (H₂O).
They’re held together by a strong covalent bond.
What is a hydrogen bond?
It’s a weak connection between water molecules.
The slightly positive hydrogen of one water molecule sticks to the slightly negative oxygen of another.
What is polarity and why is it important?
Water is polar, which means one side is a bit negative and the other is a bit positive.
This helps water stick to stuff, dissolve things, and makes all its cool properties work.
What is cohesion and adhesion?
Cohesion = water sticks to water (like raindrops).
Adhesion = water sticks to other stuff (like water on glass).
Cycles
How does water move through the cycle and return to the ocean?
Evaporates → Condenses into clouds → Falls as rain → Runs off into rivers → Back to ocean.
What is transpiration?
It’s when plants release water vapor into the air.
It’s like evaporation, but from plants.
What is a carbon pool/reservoir?
A place where carbon is stored—like the air, ocean, ground, or in plants and animals.
Where is carbon stored?
Atmosphere (air), biosphere (living stuff), oceans (water), and ground (rocks, soil).
How does carbon move through photosynthesis and respiration?
Plants take in CO₂ during photosynthesis.
Animals release CO₂ when they breathe.
How do humans change the carbon and water cycles?
We burn fossil fuels, cut trees, pollute water, and change the land which messes up both cycles.
Energy Transfer (Food Webs)
What are the trophic levels?
Producers (plants)
Herbivores (eat plants)
Carnivores (eat herbivores)
Top predators
What’s the difference between autotroph and heterotroph?
Autotrophs make their own food (like plants).
Heterotrophs eat other living things (like animals).
What is the energy pyramid?
Only 10% of energy moves up each level. Most energy is lost as heat.
Population Dynamics
Draw exponential and logistic growth graphs.
Exponential: curve that goes up fast (no limits).
Logistic: curve that grows then levels off (with limits).
What is carrying capacity?
The biggest number of organisms an area can support without problems.
What are limiting factors?
Things like food, space, and water that limit how big a population can get.
How do limiting factors relate to carrying capacity?
They help set the carrying capacity—if resources run out, the population stops growing.
What affects population growth?
Births, deaths, immigration (coming in), and emigration (leaving).
What is population density?
How many living things are in a certain area.
What’s the difference between density dependent and independent factors?
Density-dependent: more effect with bigger populations (like disease).
Density-independent: affect everyone the same (like natural disasters).
Succession & Distribution
What are the stages of primary succession?
Starts with bare rock, then mosses, small plants, bigger plants, and finally trees.
What causes primary succession?
Volcanoes, glaciers—places with no soil.
What are the stages of secondary succession?
Starts with soil already there (after a fire or farming), then plants grow back.
What causes secondary succession?
Fires, floods, humans clearing land.
What is a pioneer species?
First species to grow in an area (like moss or lichen).
What is a climax community?
The final, stable group of plants and animals in an area.
What affects where organisms live?
Things like sunlight, water, temperature, and soil.
What’s the difference between photic and aphotic zones?
Photic = sunlight reaches (top of ocean).
Aphotic = dark, no light (deep ocean).
Human Impacts & Sustainability
What is the “Tragedy of the Commons”?
When everyone uses a shared resource (like fish or air) too much and ruins it for everyone.
What is biodiversity? What are the 3 types?
Biodiversity = variety of life.
Genetic diversity
Species diversity
Ecosystem diversity
How do humans cause biodiversity loss?
Deforestation = cut down forests
Urbanization = build cities
Overfishing = take too many fish
Invasive species = bring new species that take over
Pollution = harm air, land, water
What’s the difference between renewable and nonrenewable resources?
Renewable: can be replaced (like solar).
Nonrenewable: can run out (like oil).
Energy sources pros and cons:
Wind/Solar = clean, but not always available
Biomass = uses plants, but can harm forests
Hydropower = clean, but can harm rivers
Geothermal = clean, but location-specific
Oil/Coal/Natural Gas = powerful, but pollutes
Nuclear = powerful, but has dangerous waste
What is biomagnification?
When chemicals or toxins build up more and more in animals higher up the food chain.
Which level gets the most toxins?
The top predators—they eat everything below them, so they get the most toxins.
What is ocean acidification and how does it hurt coral?
More CO₂ in the air = more acid in the ocean = coral can’t grow well.
What is a controlled burn and why is it good?
A planned fire to clear dead stuff and help the ecosystem stay healthy.
What does it mean to live sustainably?
Living in a way that doesn’t mess up the planet for future generations.
How can you reduce your carbon footprint?
Bike or walk, use less electricity, recycle, eat less meat.
Macromolecules
What are the 4 macromolecules?
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids (fats)
Nucleic acids (DNA & RNA)
a. What are their monomers (building blocks)?
Carbs → sugars (like glucose)
Proteins → amino acids
Lipids → fatty acids + glycerol
Nucleic acids → nucleotides
b. What are their functions?
Carbs = quick energy
Proteins = build stuff in your body (muscles, enzymes)
Lipids = store energy, insulation
Nucleic acids = store genetic info
c. What are some examples?
Carbs = Glucose
Proteins = antibodies and enzymes
Lipids = oils, butter and Wax
Nucleic acids = DNA, RNA (in all cells)
Cell Theory & Microscopes
What’s the difference between a theory and a law?
A theory explains why something happens (based on evidence).
A law describes what happens (always true, no explanation).
What are the 4 types of microscopes we talked about?
Compound light microscope – uses light, can see living things.
Stereomicroscope (dissecting) – 3D view, for bigger things, low magnification.
Scanning electron microscope (SEM) – shows surface in 3D, can’t view live things.
Transmission electron microscope (TEM) – shows inside of a cell, can’t view live things.
a. Which one can't be used on living things?
SEM and TEM can’t be used on living stuff.
What are the 3 parts of the cell theory?
All living things are made of cells.
Cells are the basic unit of life.
All cells come from other cells.
Cells & Organelles
What’s the difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
Prokaryotes = no nucleus (bacteria).
Eukaryotes = have a nucleus (plants, animals, fungi).
How are plant and animal cells different?
Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts, and a big vacuole.
Animal cells don’t have those.
Study the diagrams.
Know what each organelle looks like and what it does (like nucleus = control center, mitochondria = energy maker).
Why is the vacuole bigger in plant cells?
It stores more water for the plant to stay firm and not wilt.
Which organelle does cellular respiration happen in?
Mitochondria (makes energy/ATP from food).
Where does photosynthesis happen?
Chloroplasts (only in plant cells, uses sunlight to make food).
What organelle is found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
Ribosomes (make proteins).
Cell Transport
What’s the cell membrane made of?
Phospholipid bilayer (two layers of fat molecules with proteins mixed in).
What is homeostasis? Why is it important?
Keeping things stable inside the cell (like temperature, water, etc.). It helps cells survive.
What’s the difference between passive and active transport?
Passive = no energy needed (goes with the flow).
Active = needs energy (goes against the flow).
What are the 3 types of passive transport?
Diffusion = stuff spreads out
Osmosis = water moves
Facilitated diffusion = stuff moves through a protein channel
What are the 3 types of active transport?
Protein pumps = move things using energy
Endocytosis = cell takes stuff in
Exocytosis = cell pushes stuff out
What do "with" and "against the concentration gradient" mean?
With the gradient = high to low (easy, no energy).
Against the gradient = low to high (hard, needs energy).
Define hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic.
Hypertonic = more stuff outside the cell → water leaves → cell shrinks
Hypotonic = more stuff inside the cell → water enters → cell swells
Isotonic = equal stuff inside and out → water moves in and out equally
Plant Structures & Functions
Major organs of the plant: Roots, stems, leaves, and flowers.
Functions:
Roots: Absorb water and nutrients, anchor the plant.
Stems: Support the plant, carry materials between roots and leaves.
Leaves: Do photosynthesis.
Flowers: Help with reproduction.
Most surface area for photosynthesis: Leaves.
Role of stomata: They open and close to control gas exchange (CO₂ in, O₂ out) and water loss.
Functions:
Stomata: Openings that allow gas exchange.
Guard cells: Control the opening and closing of the stomata.
Chloroplasts: Where photosynthesis happens.
Transportation in plants:
Xylem: Moves water and minerals from roots to leaves.
Phloem: Moves sugar from leaves to other parts of the plant.
Gymnosperms vs. Angiosperms:
Gymnosperms: No flowers, seeds in cones (ex: pine trees).
Angiosperms: Have flowers, seeds in fruit.
Reproduction:
Sexual: Involves male (pollen) and female (ovule) parts making seeds.
Asexual: One plant makes a copy of itself (ex: cuttings, runners).
Male flower parts: Stamen, which includes anther (makes pollen) and filament.
Female flower parts: Pistil/Carpel, which includes stigma, style, and ovary (holds ovules).
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
ATP stands for: Adenosine Triphosphate.
ATP → ADP: One phosphate breaks off, energy is released.
ADP → ATP: A phosphate is added, energy is stored.
ATP synthase: An enzyme that helps make ATP during cellular respiration or photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis
Equation: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + sunlight → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
Reactants: Carbon dioxide (CO₂), water (H₂O), and sunlight.
Products: Glucose (sugar) and oxygen (O₂).
Main goal: To make glucose (sugar) for energy.
Gas exchange happens in the stomata of the leaves.
Enzymes
Function: Speed up chemical reactions in cells.
Activation energy: The energy needed to start a reaction. Enzymes lower it.
Lock & key model: The enzyme fits the substrate perfectly, like a key fits a lock.
Active site: The part of the enzyme where the substrate binds.
Effect of conditions:
Temperature: Too hot/cold can stop the enzyme.
pH: Needs the right pH level.
Coenzymes: Help the enzyme work better.
Inhibitors: Slow down or stop the enzyme.
Cellular Respiration
Equation:
Reactants: Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) and oxygen (O₂).
Products: Carbon dioxide (CO₂), water (H₂O), and ATP (energy).
Three steps:
Glycolysis
Krebs Cycle
Electron Transport Chain
Aerobic vs. Anaerobic:
Aerobic: Needs oxygen, makes more ATP (~36).
Anaerobic: No oxygen, makes less ATP (~2).
Fermentation: Anaerobic process that makes energy without oxygen, produces lactic acid or alcohol.
Photosynthesis & Cellular Respiration:
Photosynthesis makes glucose and oxygen.
Cellular respiration uses them to make energy.
Their equations are opposite.
Cell Cycle & Mitosis
What are the main events of the cell cycle?
Interphase (cell grows, DNA copies, prepares to divide)
Mitosis (nucleus divides)
Cytokinesis (cell splits into two)
How can mistakes in the cell cycle potentially lead to cancer?
If cells skip checkpoints or don’t stop dividing when they should, they can grow uncontrollably, forming tumors.
Does cancer speed up or slow down the cell cycle process?
It speeds up the cycle, causing cells to divide too quickly and uncontrollably.
What happens if the p53 gene is mutated and stops working?
Damaged cells could go through mitosis when they shouldn’t, leading to tumor formation or cancer.
Phases of Interphase and what happens in each:
G₁ phase: Cell grows.
S phase: DNA is copied (replicated).
G₂ phase: Cell gets ready to divide.
Phases of Mitosis and what happens:
Prophase: Chromosomes appear, nuclear membrane breaks down, spindle fibers form.
Metaphase: Chromosomes line up in the middle.
Anaphase: Chromatids are pulled apart to opposite sides.
Telophase: Nuclear membranes reform, chromosomes uncoil.
Then cytokinesis splits the cell in two.
What is created through mitosis?
Two genetically identical cells.
Which cells go through mitosis?
Body cells (like skin, muscle, etc.), NOT sperm or egg cells.
What is binary fission?
A type of asexual reproduction used by bacteria where the cell copies its DNA and splits into two.
Mitosis vs. Binary Fission:
Both produce identical cells.
Mitosis happens in eukaryotic cells (with a nucleus), binary fission in prokaryotes (no nucleus).
Mitosis is more complex.
Meiosis
Phases of meiosis:
Two parts: Meiosis I and Meiosis II
Meiosis I: Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I
Meiosis II: Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II
It’s like mitosis happening twice, but it creates four unique cells.
What is the result of meiosis?
Four haploid cells (sperm or egg), all genetically different.
What type of cells go through meiosis?
Sex cells (also called gametes).
Haploid vs Diploid:
Diploid = full set of chromosomes (2 sets – one from each parent, like body cells).
Haploid = half the number of chromosomes (1 set, like sperm or egg cells).
How many pairs of chromosomes do humans have?
23 pairs, or 46 total chromosomes.
Mitosis vs. Meiosis
How do mitosis and meiosis relate to sexual and asexual reproduction?
Mitosis = asexual reproduction (makes identical copies).
Meiosis = sexual reproduction (makes sperm and egg with variation).
How are mitosis and meiosis similar? How are they different?
Similar: both divide cells and go through similar phases (P-M-A-T).
Different:
Mitosis = 1 division, 2 identical cells.
Meiosis = 2 divisions, 4 different cells.
Mitosis = body cells; Meiosis = sex cells.
Meiosis includes crossing over and creates genetic variation.
How do asexual and sexual reproduction affect genetic variation?
Asexual = no variation (offspring are clones).
Sexual = lots of variation (combines genes from both parents).
Basic Genetics & Inheritance
Which of Mendel’s laws describes why we do dihybrid crosses? Explain.
Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment explains dihybrid crosses.
It says that genes for different traits (like seed color and shape) are passed on independently of each other during meiosis.
What are the chromosomes for a male and a female? (sex chromosomes)
Female: XX
Male: XY
Red roses × white roses = pink roses. What type of inheritance is this?
This is incomplete dominance — the traits blend together.
Why don’t James and Ryan (brothers) look alike?
Genetic variation from mixing DNA during meiosis and fertilization causes siblings to look different.
A spindle fiber fails to separate chromosomes in egg cell production. What is this called?
This is called nondisjunction, which can cause genetic disorders like Down syndrome (extra chromosome).
Why is there a wide range of eye colors in humans?
Polygenic inheritance — more than one gene controls the trait, leading to lots of combinations.
Mutation in which type of cell could affect offspring?
A mutation in a sex cell (sperm or egg) can be passed to offspring and affect their traits.
Complex Inheritance & Punnett Squares
Chicken feather color is codominant: B = black, W = white. Cross BW (black & white spotted) × WW (white).
Punnett square:
W W
B BW BW
W WW WW
Genotypes: 2 BW, 2 WW
Phenotypes: 50% black & white spotted, 50% white
Snapdragon flower color is incomplete dominance: R = red, w = white, Rw = pink. Cross Rw × RR.
Punnett square:
R R
R RR RR
w Rw Rw
Genotypes: 2 RR, 2 Rw
Phenotypes: 50% red, 50% pink
Fruit fly eye color is sex-linked: Xᴿ = red (dominant), Xʳ = white, Y = male only. Cross XʳXʳ × XᴿY.
Punnett square:
Xᴿ Y
Xʳ XʳXᴿ XʳY
Xʳ XʳXᴿ XʳY
Daughters: All XʳXᴿ → red eyes
Sons: All XʳY → white eyes
Hemophilia is sex-linked. Dad has it: XʰY. Mom is a carrier: XᴴXʰ.
Punnett square:
Xʰ Y
Xᴴ XᴴXʰ XᴴY
Xʰ XʰXʰ XʰY
Daughters: 50% carrier, 50% have disease
Sons: 50% healthy, 50% have disease
Blood type genotypes: A = AA or AO, O = OO. Cross AO (Type A) × OO (Type O):
Punnett square:
O O
A AO AO
O OO OO
Phenotypes: 50% Type A, 50% Type O
Widow's peak: W = dominant, w = recessive. Son = Ww, wife = ww. Cross Ww × ww:
Punnett square:
w w
W Ww Ww
w ww ww
Genotypes: 50% Ww, 50% ww
Phenotypes: 50% widow's peak, 50% straight hairline
Pedigree analysis: Shaded = has trait. Is it dominant or recessive?
If shaded individuals have parents who are not shaded, it’s recessive.
Recessive traits can skip generations, while dominant traits usually don’t.
DNA, RNA, and Protein Synthesis
Where is DNA located in the cell? In the nucleus.
Describe the structure of DNA: It's a double helix made of two strands twisted around each other, like a twisted ladder.
Why is DNA the universal code? All living things use DNA to store genetic information.
What are the 4 nitrogen bases and how do they pair? Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T), Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G).
3 differences between DNA and RNA:
DNA has thymine, RNA has uracil
DNA is double-stranded, RNA is single-stranded
DNA stays in the nucleus, RNA can leave
Complementary strand for ATTTGCCCGATAGAA: TAAACGGGCTATCTT
Steps of DNA replication:
DNA unzips
New bases are added
Two identical DNA molecules are formed
Circle the correct answer:
Helicase unzips DNA
DNA polymerase adds bases
Fill in the blank: DNA replication results in two DNA molecules, each with one original strand and one new strand.
3 types of RNA and their functions:
mRNA: carries the message from DNA
tRNA: brings amino acids to the ribosome
rRNA: makes up part of the ribosome
What is transcription? Making RNA from DNA.
What is translation? Making proteins from mRNA.
Where does transcription and translation occur?
Transcription: nucleus
Translation: ribosome in the cytoplasm
What is a codon? A group of 3 RNA bases that codes for one amino acid.
What is an anticodon? A 3-base sequence on tRNA that matches a codon on mRNA.
The picture shows (based on context): Protein synthesis (transcription + translation).
Transcribe and translate:
a. DNA: TAC GGT TAA GTC CAG TAG CAT GCA
b. mRNA: AUG CCA AUU CAG GUC AUC GUA CGU
c. Amino acids: Methionine – Proline – Isoleucine – Glutamine – Valine – Isoleucine – Valine – Arginine
3 types of mutations:
Substitution
Insertion
Deletion
Process that introduces new phenotypes: Mutation
What is biotechnology? Using living things to solve problems or make products.
PCR & electrophoresis:
PCR copies DNA
Electrophoresis compares DNA by separating it by size
Examples of genetic engineering:
GMOs
Insulin production
Gene therapy
Pros and cons of GMOs:
Pros: More food, disease resistance
Cons: Allergies, environmental concerns
Ethical issues in biotech:
Privacy
Designer babies
Cloning
Evolution
What is evolution? The change in species over time.
5 pieces of evidence for evolution:
Fossils
DNA
Embryos
Homologous structures
Vestigial structures
Homologous structures: Similar body parts in different species = common ancestor
Vestigial structures: Body parts with no function now (ex: tailbone, appendix)
Darwin’s role: He proposed natural selection as the way evolution happens.
Common origin theories: Life started from simple cells in water and evolved over time.
Ancient vs modern skulls: Ancient skulls had bigger jaws, smaller brains; modern have rounder skulls, bigger brains.
Human evolution: Bigger brains, tools, language, walking upright (bipedalism)
Five fingers of evolution:
Small population
Non-random mating
Mutation
Gene flow
Natural selection
Gene pool: All the genes in a population; changes = evolution.
Gene flow: Moving individuals in/out spreads new traits.
Genetic drift: Random changes in small populations.
Genetic recombination: Mixing genes during meiosis = variation.
Process increasing variation: Sexual reproduction
Natural selection: Best traits survive and get passed on Example: Dark-colored moths surviving in a polluted environment.