STUDY QUESTIONS, EXAM 3, PHI 1510: INTRO TO PHI

1. Define what Hobbes means by “materialism.” What characteristics do “bodies” have? What implications does he draw from this position? Explain them in detail.

·       Thomas Hobbes defines materialism as the belief that everything in the universe, including human thoughts and emotions, can be explained by the motion and interaction of physical bodies. According to Hobbes, bodies are material entities that interact through mechanical laws, like stones colliding.

·       From this perspective, Hobbes argues that human beings are essentially machines driven by self-interest, avoiding pain and seeking pleasure. This view implies that all mental processes and human behavior can be reduced to physical interactions within the body

2. Explain Hobbes’ distinction between “immediate” and “mediate” sense experience. How does Hobbes analyze the way in which sense experience happens? What is the distinction between primary and secondary qualities?

·       Immediate sense experience, according to Hobbes, is direct sensory perception, like seeing a color or hearing a sound. Mediate sense experience involves memory or imagination, such as recalling a past event.

·       Hobbes analyzes sense experience as a mechanical process where external objects affect our sensory organs, causing internal motions that produce sensations.

·       Primary qualities are inherent properties of objects, like shape and motion. Secondary qualities are the sensations objects produce in us, like color and sound, which exist only in our perception.

3. Give Berkeley’s criticism of Hobbes’ concept of “matter” and Hobbes’ distinction between primary and secondary qualities.

·       George Berkeley criticized Hobbes' concept of "matter" by arguing that it is meaningless without perception. Berkeley believed that only ideas and perceptions exist, summed up by his famous phrase, "to be is to be perceived." According to Berkeley, matter, as an entity existing independently of perception, is a flawed concept.

·       Regarding Hobbes' distinction between primary and secondary qualities, Berkeley argued that this distinction is also invalid. He believed that all qualities—whether shape, size (primary), or color, sound (secondary)—are perceived qualities and thus exist only in the mind. Berkeley denied the existence of any qualities outside of perception, challenging Hobbes' materialist framework.

4. How does D’Holbach argue for determinism? What images/metaphors does he use to help explain his determinism? Explain them in detail.

·       Paul-Henri Thiry, Baron d'Holbach, argues for determinism by asserting that all events, including human actions, are the result of prior causes and governed by physical laws. He believes that humans are entirely physical beings, and our actions are determined by the interplay of matter and motion.

·       To explain his view, d'Holbach uses several metaphors:

§  Life as a Line: He describes human life as a line drawn by nature on the surface of the earth, which we cannot deviate from. This metaphor emphasizes that our actions are predetermined and inevitable.

§  The Will as a Pole: He likens the will to a pole being pulled in different directions by ropes representing desires and impulses. The pole falls in the direction of the strongest pull, illustrating that our decisions are determined by the strongest influence at any given moment.

§  Thirst and Poisoned Water: He uses the example of a thirsty person who must drink from a fountain unless told it's poisoned. Even if the person initially wants to drink, the stronger desire to avoid death will prevail, showing that actions are determined by competing desires.

·       These metaphors help illustrate d'Holbach's belief that free will is an illusion and that our actions are entirely governed by physical laws and prior causes.

5. What does Sartre mean by “existentialism?” Be sure to explain what he means by the following: “radical freedom” and “radical responsibility;” “existence precedes essence,” “we always choose the good;” and also the concepts of existential anguish, forlornness, and despair.

·       Existentialism, according to Jean-Paul Sartre, is a philosophy that emphasizes individual freedom, choice, and responsibility. It asserts that humans create their own meaning and essence through their actions.

·       Radical Freedom and Radical Responsibility: Sartre argues that individuals have complete freedom to make choices (radical freedom) but are also wholly responsible for the consequences of those choices (radical responsibility).

·       Existence Precedes Essence: Sartre means that humans first exist without any predetermined purpose and only later define their essence through actions and decisions. We are not born with a fixed nature; we create it ourselves.

·       We Always Choose the Good: Sartre claims that when we make choices, we believe they are the best possible options. Even if we choose wrongly, we initially perceive our choices as good or beneficial.

·       Existential Anguish, Forlornness, and Despair:

o   Existential Anguish: The feeling of profound anxiety and unease that arises from the realization of our radical freedom and the burden of making choices.

o   Forlornness: The sense of abandonment and isolation because there are no external moral or divine guides to shape our decisions.

o   Despair: The acknowledgment that we cannot control everything, and must act without certainty about the outcomes or support from a higher power.

·       Sartre's existentialism encourages embracing our freedom, accepting responsibility, and creating meaning in an indifferent universe.

       6.  What are differences between hard determinists, soft determinists, and free will 

            advocates?  Describe the difference between compatibilists and incompatibilists.

            Contrast the views of freedom and responsibility for soft determinists, hard

            Determinists, and free will advocates.

Differences Between Hard Determinists, Soft Determinists, and Free Will Advocates

Hard Determinists:

• Believe all events, including human actions, are determined by prior causes.

• Deny the existence of free will.

• Argue that freedom is an illusion and individuals are not morally responsible for their actions.

Soft Determinists (Compatibilists):

• Believe that determinism and free will can coexist.

• Argue that individuals have free will if they act according to their desires and intentions, without external coercion.

• Maintain that people can still be morally responsible for their actions, even if those actions are influenced by prior causes.

Free Will Advocates (Libertarians):

• Argue that humans possess free will that is not determined by prior causes.

• Believe that individuals have the genuine ability to choose otherwise in any given situation.

• Emphasize personal responsibility and moral accountability.

Compatibilists vs. Incompatibilists

Compatibilists:

• Believe that free will and determinism are compatible.

• Argue that people can be free and responsible for their actions even in a deterministic universe.

Incompatibilists:

• Believe that free will and determinism cannot coexist.

• Include both hard determinists (who deny free will) and libertarians (who deny determinism).

Views on Freedom and Responsibility

Soft Determinists:

• Freedom: Acting according to one’s own desires and motivations without external coercion.

• Responsibility: Individuals are morally responsible for their actions since they align with their internal motivations.

Hard Determinists:

• Freedom: Deny the existence of true freedom since all actions are determined.

• Responsibility: Argue that individuals are not morally responsible for actions that are predetermined.

Free Will Advocates:

• Freedom: Believe in genuine free will and the ability to choose otherwise.

• Responsibility: Emphasize strong moral responsibility due to the belief in genuine free will.