Washington and Adams: The Federalist Presidential Era Study Guide to Federalist Presidents

The Federalist Victory and the Philosophy of the Framers

The ratification of the United States Constitution essentially signaled the end of the Antifederalists, leading to a definitive Federalist victory that shaped the nation from 1789 to 1801. The Framers of the Constitution held specific, core beliefs that guided the early governance of the republic. They advocated for a strong central government led by the “well born,” believing that the government should actively foster business interests rather than interfere with them. A central tenet of their philosophy was the protection of property ownership, which they famously described as the ‘Bulwark of the republican government.’ Furthermore, they prioritized the good of the whole nation above the specific needs of a few individuals. The new government was unique for its time, representing the largest republic ever conceived. It featured a sophisticated sharing of power among various branches, including the establishment of the first independent judiciary. Because the Constitution was written as an outline rather than a rigid set of rules, it left significant room for interpretation by future leaders.

The Roles and Expanding Power of the American Presidency

The Constitution describes the specific duties of the President, categorizing the office as the Chief Executive, Chief Diplomat, Commander and Chief, and the Ceremonial Head of State. While the Constitution originally granted the most significant powers directly to Congress—such as the ability to override vetoes and handle confirmations—the powers of the President have increased significantly from the founding era up to the present day. This evolution raises a significant historical question: since the Constitution itself has not changed significantly with respect to the Presidency, why has the office become so powerful today? In the beginning, the Legislative branch held the upper hand, but through precedent and necessity, the executive role expanded far beyond its initial outlines.

Hamilton’s Financial Plan and the National Debt

Following the Revolutionary War, the United States faced a massive financial crisis involving both state and national debt. States had borrowed large sums of money to finance the war, and while some had begun paying off these debts, others struggled. Simultaneously, the US government owed money to holders of continental dollars, many of which had been acquired by speculators at a mere fraction of their original price. To address this, Alexander Hamilton proposed a comprehensive Financial Plan with the goal of establishing national credit and encouraging manufacturing. His plan consisted of several key components: the creation of a National Bank, the assumption of state debts by the federal government, and the funding of debts at their full value. To raise the necessary revenue to support this plan, Hamilton implemented excise taxes and tariffs, which notably led to the Whiskey Rebellion of 1794. This plan was designed to tie the interests of the wealthy to the success of the federal government.

The Emergence of Factions and Political Rivalries

The Framers did not anticipate the development of factions or political parties, which they viewed as dangerous vehicles of ‘Ambition and selfish interest’ that could potentially destroy the republic. George Washington specifically saw factions as a major danger to national unity and used his Farewell Address in 1796 to warn the country against them. Despite these warnings, factions developed from within Washington’s own cabinet, primarily through the intellectual and political clash between Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson. Their conflict began in earnest with the Financial Plan and the Compromise of 1791. They held strongly conflicting ideologies regarding the role of government, leading to the birth of two distinct political parties: the Federalists and the Democrat Republicans.

Foreign Policy and the Struggle for Neutrality

During the Federalist era, the conflict between Britain and France placed immense pressure on the young United States. Following the French Revolution in 1789, many Americans favored maintaining strong ties to the French because the French monarchy had supported the American Revolution. However, the Napoleonic Wars of 1793 forced the US to navigate a conflict between Britain and France while having ties to both. The US enjoyed profitable trade and shared historic ties with Britain, making the choice difficult. The government made several attempts to remain neutral, including the Neutrality Proclamation of 1793, Jay’s Treaty in 1794, and the management of the controversial Citizen Genet in 1794. Ultimately, these attempts at neutrality were largely unsuccessful, leading Washington to emphasize in his 1796 Farewell Address that the nation should avoid ‘entangling alliances.’

Washington’s Precedents and the Expansion of Executive Power

George Washington set a lasting precedent by expanding the power of the President and the federal government during his tenure. He established the first cabinet to advise him and signed the federal court system into law. Using the ‘elastic clause,’ he signed Hamilton’s Financial Plan into law, demonstrating a broad interpretation of presidential authority. Heavily influencing the future of the office, he enhanced the power of the Presidency but rejected personal power for himself. A prime example of this was his refusal to serve a third term, which established a tradition of a two-term limit that remained unbroken and respected until 1940.

The Adams Administration and the Alien and Sedition Acts

The Election of 1796, which pitted John Adams against Thomas Jefferson, marked the beginning of factional political parties organizing supporters and carrying out attacks through newspapers. During the Adams administration, the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 were passed, making it a crime to speak out against the US government. The stated rationale was to protect the US from foreign influence, specifically from the French, but the laws were primarily used against the Republicans. These acts were a clear violation of the First Amendment. In response, the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions of 1798 were organized as a movement to nullify federal law, with states declaring that the federal law was unconstitutional.

The Quasi War and the XYZ Affair

A ‘Quasi War’ with France further divided the nation, as Federalists attempted to use the potential conflict to destroy the Republicans. The country was split: Federalists favored the British, while Democrat Republicans favored the French. Both European powers refused to respect US claims of neutrality, turning the war in Europe into a major domestic political issue. The XYZ Affair further angered the American public, causing Federalists to demand war with France and leading Congress to vote to cut trade with the French. In an effort to save the country from a full-scale war, John Adams carefully maneuvered to avoid the conflict. While this was a successful diplomatic move, it led to the decline of his own political career and eventual defeat.

Questions & Discussion

Within the historical records and presentations of this era, several key questions are posed to help evaluate the logic and outcomes of early American leadership:

Why had George Washington been the obvious choice to be our first President?
Since the Constitution has not changed significantly with respect to the President, why then is he so powerful today?
Did Washington do the right thing in allowing the use of the elastic clause in creating Hamilton’s National Bank?
Why would his efforts to end the Quasi War crush Adams' future political career?