AP Art History course

Prehistoric Arts (Unit One)

  • Apollo 11 Stone (Namibia. 25000 B.C.E.25000 \text{ B.C.E.} Charcoal on stone)     * Context         * The artifacts were discovered in the Hun's mountains located in Namibia.         * This specific stone was part of a set of 77 tablets that contained various animal figures.         * The name "Apollo 11" was assigned because the discovery occurred during the time of the Apollo 11 moon landings.     * Content         * The images on the cave stones depict animal-like figures with human-like hind legs.         * Scholars believe the figure is a Therianthrope, specifically resembling a feline body with human legs.     * Form         * The medium used was charcoal applied to cave stone.         * There is evidence of mineral-based pigments, as an ostrich egg found nearby was painted.     * Function         * The exact purpose remains unknown, but the stone is small enough to be held in a person's hand, suggesting portability.

  • Great Hall of the Bulls (Lascaux, France. Paleolithic Europe. 1500015000-13000 B.C.E.13000 \text{ B.C.E.} Rock painting)     * Context         * Originates from the Stone Age in Dordogne, France.         * The cave system is approximately 250 meters250 \text{ meters} long and reflects a hunter-gatherer lifestyle.         * Due to preservation concerns, the original cave was closed in 19631963, and a replica was constructed for public viewing.     * Content         * Depicts animals central to the society's survival, including bulls, horses, cattle, and deer.         * Themes include the relationship between humans and animals.     * Form         * Created using charcoal and ochre on nonporous rock surfaces.         * Utilizes hierarchical scale to emphasize certain figures.         * Patterns are prominent, potentially providing insights into past human behavior.         * Notable for containing only one depiction of a human among many animals.     * Function         * Serves as a testament to the importance of survival.         * Likely used for religious rituals, storytelling, and the preservation of history.

  • Camelid Sacrum in the Shape of a Canine (Tequixquiac, central Mexico. 1400014000-7000 B.C.E.7000 \text{ B.C.E.} Bone)     * Context         * Prehistoric artifact with no written record.         * It was missing from scholarly access for about 60 years60 \text{ years} while in private ownership.         * The sacrum bone (pelvis) is considered a fulcrum of the body and central to internal organs, suggesting spiritual significance.         * May symbolize fertility or a connection to ancestry and future generations (posterity).     * Content         * Depicts the head of a canine; the natural triangular shape of the bone likely suggested this animal to the carver.         * Features visible details like nostrils and a mouth.     * Form         * Carved from the fossilized sacrum of an extinct species of camelid.     * Function         * While unknown, prehistoric artisans typically rendered objects from their daily lives; the canine choice reflects common observations.

  • Running Horned Woman (Tassili n’Ajjer, Algeria. 60006000-4000 B.C.E.4000 \text{ B.C.E.} Pigment on Rock)     * Context         * Located in a high-elevation area with unique topography in Algeria, Africa.         * Produced by a hunter-gatherer society; thousands of similar paintings were found in the vicinity.     * Content         * The woman features white dots representing body paint.         * She is depicted running while wearing arm and shin guards, accompanied by other running figures.     * Form         * Employs hierarchical scale and profile perspective.         * The use of pigment on rock creates an illusion of movement.     * Function         * Emphasizes the necessity of survival and recognizes the profound relationship between humans and animals.

  • Beaker with Ibex Motifs (Susa, Iran. 42004200-3500 B.C.E.3500 \text{ B.C.E.} Painted terra cotta)     * Context         * Associated with the Susa people in modern-day Iran.     * Content         * Features a central ibex (mountain goat) with oversized horns.         * Includes running greyhound-like animals and birds encircling the top.         * Diamond shapes are positioned at the upper register.     * Form         * Painted terra cotta utilizing geometric lines and shapes.     * Function         * Intended for use in funerary practices.

  • Anthropomorphic Stele (Arabian Peninsula. 4th millennium B.C.E.4\text{th millennium B.C.E.} Sandstone)     * Context         * Found in pre-Islamic Northern Saudi Arabia in a fertile area.         * Found alongside approximately 6060 other steles.     * Content         * Represents a human figure with a trapezoid-shaped head.         * Includes a horizontal necklace, an awl, and a belt with two daggers at the waist.     * Form         * Made from sandstone using bas-relief carving; the carvings are not highly intricate.     * Function         * A stele is a vertical stone monument or marker; this one highlights the importance of the human figure.

  • Jade Cong (Liangzhu, China. 33003300-2200 B.C.E.2200 \text{ B.C.E.} Carved Jade)     * Context         * Developed in the Yangzi delta during the Neolithic era by a farming society.     * Content         * A square hollow tube representing dead ancestors.         * Features lines and circles depicting animals, humans, and monsters.     * Form         * Crafted from jade with precise engravings produced through sanding as the method of carving.         * Utilizes bas-relief.     * Function         * Serves as a symbol of power and wealth.         * Found in graves to protect the soul in the afterlife; the rectangle represents earth, while the circle represents the heavens.

  • Stonehenge (Wiltshire, UK. Neolithic Europe. 25002500-1600 B.C.E.1600 \text{ B.C.E.} Sandstone)     * Context         * Located on the Salisbury Plain in England.         * Construction began around 3100 B.C.E.3100 \text{ B.C.E.}, concurrent with the first dynasties of ancient Egypt, and continued for 500 years500 \text{ years}.         * Required sophisticated planning and massive labor; used machinery to place lintel stones atop post stones.     * Content         * Constructed in three phases; older than the Egyptian pyramids.         * Consists of concentric circles of monolithic stones.         * Lintel stones were carved to create the circular curve; huge pits ensure the stones stay upright.     * Form         * Mainly composed of durable bluestone and sandstone.         * Utilizes post-and-lintel construction.     * Function         * The second stage was used as a burial site for important males aged 2020-5050.         * Trilithon horseshoes mark the mid-summer solstice and mid-winter sunset (longest and shortest days).

  • The Ambum Stone (Ambum Valley, Enga Province, Papua New Guinea. 1500 B.C.E.1500 \text{ B.C.E.} Greywacke)     * Context         * Neolithic era; settled communities allowed more time for complex sculpture.         * Greywacke is a very hard, durable, and valuable stone that is difficult to carve.     * Content         * Likely depicts an Echidna, an egg-laying mammal native to New Guinea.         * Its rounded belly provides the balance necessary for it to be a freestanding sculpture.     * Form         * Created using subtractive carving techniques to produce features like the "floaty" neck.     * Function         * Portability suggests it was passed around; potentially used for religious purposes or buried with the dead.

  • Tlatilco Female Figurine (Central Mexico, sites of Tlatilco. 12001200-900 B.C.E.900 \text{ B.C.E.} Ceramic)     * Context         * Found in graves by brick makers looking for clay.     * Content         * Depicts a female form with elaborate hair and a lively expression.         * Features a double-faced head, which may symbolize duality (e.g., life/death, good/evil, or yin/yang).         * Often lacks defined hands and feet.     * Form         * Characterized by horizontal balance through symmetry, textured hair, and a heavy bottom.         * Males were rarely depicted, and when they were, they often wore masks or costumes.     * Function         * Likely involved in burial processes.

  • Terra Cotta Fragments (Lapita. Solomon Islands, Reef Islands. 1000 B.C.E.1000 \text{ B.C.E.} incised)     * Context         * Created by Lapita culture artisans; discovered in New Caledonia where about 8500085000 indigenous people lived.     * Content         * Depicts anthropomorphic figures with highly geometric, large faces.         * Different groups used specific pottery designs to distinguish themselves.     * Form         * Made from molded terra cotta (reddish-brown, unglazed clay).         * Used "dentate stamping," a method of carving designs into natural materials.     * Function         * Fragments originate from food storage pots.         * Pottery was central to Lapita culture and used for rituals or religious reverence.         * Pottery exchange indicates active trade and communication between groups.

Ancient Mediterranean (Unit Two)

  • White Temple and its Ziggurat (Uruk [modern Warka, Iraq]. Sumerians. 35003500-3000 B.C.E.3000 \text{ B.C.E.} Mud Brick)     * Context: Located in modern-day Iraq.     * Content         * The structure stands 40 feet40 \text{ feet} tall.         * Features a tripartite plan: a rectangular central hall with three entrances.         * The White Temple contains chambers with wood shelves; the north end has a podium and altar.         * Excavations found leopard and lion bones inside.         * The Ziggurat is a raised platform with sloping sides and a stairway.     * Form: Constructed from mudrock with an asphalt top; the exterior was whitewashed.     * Function: Served governmental and religious purposes, primarily for rituals and sacrifices dedicated to the god Anu.

  • Palette of King Narmer (Predynastic Egypt. 30003000-2920 B.C.E.2920 \text{ B.C.E.} Greywacke)     * Context         * Artifact found in the Temple of Horus.         * Created during the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt for King Narmer.     * Content         * Includes the head of the goddess Bat.         * Narmer is depicted with a bull tail and a lower Egyptian kilt.         * Shows decapitated and castrated enemies; Narmer is also symbolized as a bull knocking down walls.     * Form: Carved from grayish siltstone, measuring approximately 2 feet2 \text{ feet} in length.     * Function: Used for grinding makeup (eye makeup and lipstick); acted as a ceremonial object dedicated to a god and placed in graves.

  • Statues of Votive Figures (Square Temple at Eshnunna, Iraq. Sumerians. 29002900-2600 B.C.E.2600 \text{ B.C.E.} Gypsum inlaid with shell and black limestone)     * Context: Worshippers set these up in shrines to act as stand-ins, worshipping on behalf of the owner in their absence.     * Content         * Depicts male and female donors with eyes significantly larger than their hands (eyes symbolize eternal wakefulness).         * Inscriptions often include wishes to be granted or requests for a god to look favorably upon the worshipper.     * Form         * Made of alabaster with V-shaped bodies on pedestals, standing about 1 foot 3 inches1 \text{ foot } 3 \text{ inches} tall.         * Eyes are made of lapis lazuli; brows consist of dark shells, limestone, and bitumen.     * Function: Portable stand-in worshippers.

  • Seated Scribe (Saqqara, Egypt. Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty. 26202620-2500 B.C.E.2500 \text{ B.C.E.} Painted Limestones)     * Context: Depicts a scribe, one of the few literate people in Egypt responsible for history and record-keeping.     * Content: The scribe holds a papyrus scroll; his tranquil face signifies wisdom. The sitting position denotes respect.     * Form: The body is limestone with wooden nipples; features are individualized rather than idealized.     * Function: Created for funerals to reflect the scribe's social status and respect.

  • Standard of Ur (Royal Tombs at UR, Iraq. Sumerian. 26002600-2400 B.C.E.2400 \text{ B.C.E.} Wood inlaid with shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone)     * Context: Found in south Iraq in royal graves (one containing 7474 sacrifices).     * Content         * The "Peace" side shows men bringing crops and fish.         * The "War" side shows naked, bleeding enemies given to the king.         * Divided into 33 registers with hierarchical scale (the king is largest).         * Symbols include talons holding an arrow (war) and an olive branch (peace).     * Form: Mosaic tiles: shells (Persia), red limestone (India), and blue lapis lazuli (Afghanistan).     * Function: Possibilities include a music box, commemorative art, or a holder for currency; it was possibly a standard (flag) carried into battle.

  • Great Pyramids of Giza and Great Sphinx (Egypt. Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty. 25502550-2490 B.C.E.2490 \text{ B.C.E.} Cut Limestone)     * Context         * Tallest structures for over 4000 years4000 \text{ years}.         * Includes causeways (elevated roads) leading to the Nile where the funeral boat would arrive.         * Pyramid of Khufu: Tallest (481 feet481 \text{ feet}), composed of 2,300,0002,300,000 blocks weighing over 50 tons50 \text{ tons} each.         * Pyramid of Khafre: Looks tallest because it is on higher ground; features the Sphinx (lion with Khafre's head) as a symbol of royal power.         * Pyramid of Menkaure: Smallest (213 feet213 \text{ feet}) with the most complex internal chambers.     * Content: Represents the passage of the dead; located close to cities.     * Form: Built from bedrock, corestones, Tura limestone, and red granite; aligned with cardinal points.     * Function: Royal mortuary complexes reflecting the solar cycle and social structure.

  • King Menkaure and Queen (Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty. 24902490-2472 B.C.E.2472 \text{ B.C.E.} Greywacke)     * Context: Menkaure was the son of Khafre.     * Content: Depicts the king in a traditional fake beard and headdress, stepping forward with the left foot into the afterlife. The woman (wife) is slightly shorter.     * Form: Made from hard-to-carve greywacke; figures have rigid postures and individualized features.     * Function: Memorial structure communicating pharaonic divinity.

  • The Code of Stele of Hammurabi (Babylon. 17921792-1750 B.C.E.1750 \text{ B.C.E.} Basalt)     * Content: Shows King Hammurabi receiving codes from Shamash (god of justice). Features over 300300 laws written in cuneiform regarding severe punishments.     * Form: A 7.4 foot7.4 \text{ foot} tall basalt rock with high relief carving.     * Function: Public display of laws and punishments enforced by Hammurabi.

  • Temple of Amun-Re and Hypostyle Hall (Karnak, Egypt. New Kingdom. 15501550-1250 B.C.E.1250 \text{ B.C.E.} Sandstone/Mudbrick)     * Content: Features an obelisk, sphinxes, and clerestory lighting (natural light from above). The hall is one of largest ever built.     * Form: Axial temple design aligned on cardinal points with longitudinal split symmetry (pylons/gateways).     * Function: Center for god Amun-Re and other deities.

  • Mortuary Temple mand Statue of Hatshepsut (Luxor, Egypt. New Kingdom. 14731473-1458 B.C.E.1458 \text{ B.C.E.} Sandstone and red granite)     * Content: A 9 foot9 \text{ foot} tall kneeling statue of Hatshepsut with pharaonic features (fake beard, removed breasts). The temple was partially carved into a rock cliff.     * Form: Colonnade terrace aligned with the winter solstice.     * Function: Funerary temple for the woman pharaoh to prove she was chosen to rule.

  • Akhenaton, Nefertiti, and Three Daughters (New Kingdom [Amarna]. 13531353-1335 B.C.E.1335 \text{ B.C.E.} Limestone)     * Context: Akhenaton shifted Egypt to monotheism (worshipping Aten, the sun god).     * Content: Depicts the family sitting on a throne under the sun disk Aten, which radiates Ankhs (symbol of life) towards them.     * Form: Bas-relief carving 32 cm32 \text{ cm} high with disproportionate, soft, and relaxed body positions.     * Function: Used as a household altar.

  • Tutankhamun’s Tomb, innermost coffin (New Kingdom. 1323 B.C.E.1323 \text{ B.C.E.} Gold with inlay)     * Content: Three coffins were used; the innermost is solid gold. The pharaoh holds a crook and flail (rule) and features Nekhbet (vulture) and Wadjet (cobra). The back has a spell for the afterlife.

  • Last Judgement of Hu-Nefer (New Kingdom. 1275 B.C.E.1275 \text{ B.C.E.} Painted papyrus scroll)     * Context: Part of the "Book of the Dead" with spells to aid the dead.     * Content: Anubis weighs Hunefer's heart against a feather from Ma'at. If the heart is heavier, Ammit (crocodile-lion-hippo) devours it. Osiris and his sisters oversee the judgment.

  • Lamassu from the Citadel of Sargon II (Neo-Assyrian. 720720-705 B.C.E.705 \text{ B.C.E.} Alabaster)     * Content: Human-headed winged bulls with 55 legs (to appear standing from the front and moving from the side). Features double horns, beards, and earrings.     * Form: High relief, 13.9 feet13.9 \text{ feet} tall.     * Function: Spiritual guardian of the city and king's power.

  • Athenian Agora (Archaic through Hellenistic Greek. 600 B.C.E.600 \text{ B.C.E.}-150 C.E.150 \text{ C.E.} Plan)     * Context: Center of government and meritocracy for male citizens.     * Form: Buildings made of marble including the stoa (business/gov).

  • Anavysos Kouros (Archaic Greek. 530 B.C.E.530 \text{ B.C.E.} Marble)     * Content: Larger than life-size naked youth (Kouros) used as a grave marker for Kroisos.     * Form: Idealized body with rigid posture influenced by Egyptian art.

  • Peplos Kore (Archaic Greek. 530 B.C.E.530 \text{ B.C.E.} Marble)     * Content: Young maiden in a Peplos robe, arm extended (missing). Expression is transcendent/wise.

  • Sarcophagus of the Spouses (Etruscan. 520 B.C.E.520 \text{ B.C.E.} Terra cotta)     * Context: Found in a tomb in northern Italy. Etruscan women had higher status than Greeks.     * Content: Man and woman in intimate embrace on a sarcophagus shaped like a bed; both feature the "Archaic smile."

  • Audience Hall (apadana) of Darius and Xerxes (Persepolis, Iran. Persian. 520520-465 B.C.E.465 \text{ B.C.E.} Limestone)     * Content: 7272 columns (24 meters24 \text{ meters} tall) with animal capitals (bulls, eagles, lions). Staircase walls show figures bringing tribute from conquered states.     * Form: Hypostyle architecture.

  • Temple of Minerva and Apollo Sculpture (Etruscan. 510510-500 B.C.E.500 \text{ B.C.E.} Tufa/Terra cotta)     * Content: Triple cella configuration; terra cotta statues on the roof edge (unlike Greeks who put them in pediments).

  • Tomb of the Triclinium (Etruscan. 480480-470 B.C.E.470 \text{ B.C.E.} Tufa and Fresco)     * Context: Etruscans believed the afterlife mirrored life. Funerals included banquets and music.     * Content: Frescoes of dancers, musicians, and diners. Skin tone used for gender: men (dark), women (light).

  • Niobides Krater (Classical Greece. 460460-450 B.C.E.450 \text{ B.C.E.} Clay, red-figure)     * Content: Front depicts Apollo and Artemis killing Niobe’s 1414 children after she bragged to Leto. Back shows Hercules (or a statue of him).     * Function: Calyx-krater used for mixing wine and water.

  • Doryphoros (Spear Bearer) (Polykleitos. 450450-440 B.C.E.440 \text{ B.C.E.} Marble copy of bronze original)     * Content: Earliest example of contrapposto (S-shaped curve). 84 inches84 \text{ inches} tall. Harmony created through tensed vs. relaxed limbs.     * Function: A "Canon" used to teach ideal mathematical proportions of the human body.

  • Acropolis (Athens. 447447-410 B.C.E.410 \text{ B.C.E.} Marble)     * Content: Includes Parthenon, Temple of Nike, Erechtheion, Propylaea.

  • Grave Stele of Hegeso (Kallimachos. 410 B.C.E.410 \text{ B.C.E.} Marble)     * Content: Relief of noblewoman Hegeso looking at jewelry held by a servant. Drapery is naturalistic; her foot rests on a pedestal.

  • Winged Victory of Samothrace (Hellenistic Greek. 190 B.C.E.190 \text{ B.C.E.} Marble)     * Content: Goddess Nike on the prow of a marble ship. Over 9 feet9 \text{ feet} tall. Features "wet drapery" technique.     * Function: Ex-voto (offering) commemorating a naval victory.

  • Great Altar of Zeus and Athena at Pergamon (Turkey. Hellenistic Greek. 175 B.C.E.175 \text{ B.C.E.} Marble)     * Content: Gigantomachy (battle of gods vs. giants). High relief. Athena fights Alkyoneus; Zeus battles 33 giants with lightning.

  • House of the Vettii (Pompeii. 2nd century B.C.E.2\text{nd century B.C.E.}; rebuilt 6262-79 C.E.79 \text{ C.E.})     * Content: Fourth-style wall paintings. Includes a large central hall (Atria) and an Impluvium (water basin).

  • Alexander Mosaic (Pompeii. 100 B.C.E.100 \text{ B.C.E.})     * Content: Battle of Issus (333 B.C.E.333 \text{ B.C.E.}) between Alexander the Great and Darius III. Made from over 1.5 million stones1.5 \text{ million stones} and glass pieces.     * Form: Floor mosaic, 2.722.72 by 5.13 meters5.13 \text{ meters}.

  • Seated Boxer (Hellenistic Greek. 100 B.C.E.100 \text{ B.C.E.} Bronze)     * Content: Shows humanity/defeat rather than ideal heroism. Features copper inlays to represent blood and wounds on the face/hands.

  • Head of a Roman Patrician (Republican Rome. 7575-50 B.C.E.50 \text{ B.C.E.} Marble)     * Form: Veristic style (hyper-realism) over-exaggerating age to show experience and wisdom. Influence of ancestral death wax masks.

  • Augustus of Prima Porta (Imperial Roman. Early 1st century C.E.1\text{st century C.E.} Marble)     * Content: Idealized propaganda showing military power. Cupid on a dolphin symbolizes divine lineage. Cuirass shows sky/earth gods.

  • Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater) (Rome. 7070-80 C.E.80 \text{ C.E.} Stone and concrete)     * Form: Oval amphitheater holding 50,00050,000-80,00080,000 people. Covers 66 acres. 50 meters50 \text{ meters} high. Arches use Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders. Includes the hypogeum (underground network).

  • Forum of Trajan (Apollodorus of Damascus. 106106-112 C.E.112 \text{ C.E.} Brick and concrete; marble column)     * Content: Commemorates victory over Dacians. Basilica Ulpia laid the foundation for modern cruciform churches.

  • Pantheon (Imperial Roman. 118118-125 C.E.125 \text{ C.E.} Concrete with stone facing)     * Content: 141 feet141 \text{ feet} tall. Large dome with a central oculus (hole) reflecting heavenly movement. Corinthian monolithic columns.

  • Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus (Late Imperial Roman. 250 C.E.250 \text{ C.E.} Marble)     * Content: Romans (idealized good guys) vs. Goths (barbarians). The central hero is depicted as invincible. Very high relief with 44 layers of figures.

Early Europe & Colonial Americas (Unit Three)

  • Catacomb of Priscila (Rome. 200200-400 C.E.400 \text{ C.E.} Tufa and fresco)     * Content: 5 miles5 \text{ miles} wide with 40,00040,000 tombs. Biblical scenes like the Book of Daniel. Roman first-style painting (plaster looking like marble).

  • Santa Sabina (Rome. 422422-432 C.E.432 \text{ C.E.} Brick and Stone)     * Content: Constantinian basilica with selenite windows and a longitudinal nave.

  • Vienna Genesis (Early Byzantine. Early 6th century C.E.6\text{th century C.E.} illuminated manuscript)     * Content: Stories of Rebecca/Eliezer and Jacob wrestling. Continuous narrative on animal skin pages (vellum).

  • San Vitale (Ravenna. Early Byzantine. 526526-547 C.E.547 \text{ C.E.} Mosaic)     * Content: Centrally planned; glorifies Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora.

  • Hagia Sophia (Istanbul. 532532-537 C.E.537 \text{ C.E.})     * Form: Dome on a square using pendentives. Later converted to a mosque with minarets/mihrabs.

  • Merovingian Looped Fibulae (Mid-6th century C.E.6\text{th century C.E.} Silver gilt)     * Content: Cloisonné technique with garnet inlays. Shapes resemble eagles and fish.

  • Virgin (Theotokos) and Children between Saints Theodore and George (Early Byzantine. 6th6\text{th}-7th century C.E.7\text{th century C.E.} Encaustic)     * Form: Icon painting using wax (encaustic). Hand of God represented at the top.

  • Lindisfarne Gospels (Hiberno Saxon. 700 C.E.700 \text{ C.E.} illuminated manuscript)     * Content: St. Matthew (human/angel symbol), Luke (calf), John (eagle), Mark (lion). Includes cross-carpet pages with intricate knots and spirals.

  • Great Mosque (Cordoba, Spain. Umayyad. 785785-786 C.E.786 \text{ C.E.} Stone masonry)     * Content: Hypostyle hall with repeating horseshoe arches. Ribbed dome above the mihrab. Formerly a Roman temple then Visigoth church.

  • Pyxis of al-Mughira (Umayyad. 968 C.E.968 \text{ C.E.} Ivory)     * Content: Cylindrical ivory container from elephant tusk. Given to royals to carry perfumes.

  • Church of Sainte-Foy (France. Romanesque. 10501050-1130 C.E.1130 \text{ C.E.})     * Content: Cruciform pilgrimage plan. Tympanum of Christ and the Last Judgement: Devil shown in hell register; saints/Abraham shown in heaven.

  • Bayeux Tapestry (Romanesque Europe. 10661066-1080 C.E.1080 \text{ C.E.} Embroidery)     * Content: 7575 scenes depicting the Battle of Hastings (10661066) and William the Conqueror.

  • Chartres Cathedral (France. Gothic. 11451145-1220 C.E.1220 \text{ C.E.} Limestone)     * Content: Flying buttresses, rose windows, and stained glass. Jamb figures depict Old Testament kings/queens.

  • Rottgen Pieta (Late medieval. 13001300-1325 C.E.1325 \text{ C.E.} Painted wood)     * Content: Emotional, contorted body of dead Jesus with 3D3\text{D} blood/wounds and a suffering Mary.

  • Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel (Giotto. 1305 C.E.1305 \text{ C.E.} Fresco)     * Content: Narrative registers of Christ/Mary. Includes "The Lamentation" using illusionism and humanism.

  • Annunciation Triptych (Robert Campin. 14271427-1432 C.E.1432 \text{ C.E.} Oil on oak)     * Content: Mary and Gabriel in a domestic setting; patrons kneeling on the left; Joseph in his workshop on the right.

  • Pazzi Chapel (Brunelleschi. 14291429-1461 C.E.1461 \text{ C.E.} Masonry)     * Form: Pietra Serena stone, centrally planned, reminiscent of the Pantheon.

  • Arnolfini Portrait (Jan van Eyck. 1434 C.E.1434 \text{ C.E.} Oil paint)     * Content: Mirror shows wedding witness; dog (fidelity); one candle (presence of God).

  • David (Donatello. 14401440-1460 C.E.1460 \text{ C.E.} Bronze)     * Content: First free-standing nude since antiquity. Contrapposto. 5 feet5 \text{ feet} tall.

  • Birth of Venus (Botticelli. 1482 C.E.1482 \text{ C.E.} Tempera on canvas)     * Content: Venus on a shell; Zephyr (wind child) on the left; attendant on the right.

  • Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci. 14941494-1498 C.E.1498 \text{ C.E.} Oil and tempera)     * Form: Linear perspective with vanishing point behind Christ's head. Apostles in groups of three.

  • Sistine Chapel (Michelangelo. Ceiling: 15081508-1512 C.E.1512 \text{ C.E.}; Altar: 15361536-1541 C.E.1541 \text{ C.E.})     * Content: 99 Biblical scenes (Genesis) horizontally on ceiling. Altar shows the Last Judgement. Features "ignudi" (nude males).

  • School of Athens (Raphael. 15091509-1511 C.E.1511 \text{ C.E.} Fresco)     * Content: Plato, Aristotle, and other thinkers gathered in an ancient Roman setting. Use of linear perspective.

  • Marie de’ Medici Cycle (Rubens. 16211621-1625 C.E.1625 \text{ C.E.} Oil on canvas)     * Content: Henry IV receiving the portrait of Marie. Includes winged gods Hymen (marriage) and Cupid.

  • Las Meninas (Diego Velázquez. 1656 C.E.1656 \text{ C.E.} Oil on canvas)     * Content: Princess in studio with attendants/dwarfs. Velázquez included himself.

  • Palace of Versailles (Louis Le Vau/Andre le Notre. 1669 C.E.1669 \text{ C.E.})     * Content: Hall of Mirrors. 700700 rooms. 20002000 acres of gardens aligned with the sun/king.

Late Europe and Americas (Unit Four)

  • Philosopher Giving a Lecture on the Orrery (Wright of Derby. 17631763-1765 C.E.1765 \text{ C.E.})     * Content: Scientist lecturing on a mechanical model of the solar system using chiaroscuro.

  • The Swing (Fragonard. 1767 C.E.1767 \text{ C.E.} Oil on Canvas)     * Form: Rococo style. Woman in pink dress bathed in sunlight kicked off her shoe toward her lover.

  • Oath of the Horatii (Jacques-Louis David. 1784 C.E.1784 \text{ C.E.} Oil on Canvas)     * Content: Neoclassical style. Three sons swearing swords to their father; grieving women on the right.

  • Liberty Leading the People (Delacroix. 1830 C.E.1830 \text{ C.E.} Oil on canvas)     * Content: Romanticism. Personification of Liberty leading over dead bodies with a flag and musket.

  • The Oxbow (Thomas Cole. 1836 C.E.1836 \text{ C.E.} Oil on canvas)     * Form: Hudson River School. Landscape divided diagonally: storm/wild nature vs. clear sky/cultivated land.

  • Olympia (Manet. 1863 C.E.1863 \text{ C.E.} Oil on canvas)     * Content: Realism/Impressionism. Prostitute staring indifferently at the viewer with a black cat at her feet.

  • The Starry Night (Van Gogh. 1889 C.E.1889 \text{ C.E.} Oil on canvas)     * Content: View from St. Remy mental hospital. Cypress trees (death and eternity) reaching to the swirling sky.

  • The Scream (Edvard Munch. 1893 C.E.1893 \text{ C.E.} Tempera and pastels)     * Content: Synesthesia (seeing sound). Swirling sky and sea with an elongated figure on a bridge.

  • Les Demoiselles d’Avignon (Pablo Picasso. 1907 C.E.1907 \text{ C.E.} Oil on canvas)     * Content: Proto-Cubism. Five women in a brothel; two wear African-inspired masks. Geometric fragmentation.

  • The Two Fridas (Frida Kahlo. 1939 C.E.1939 \text{ C.E.} Oil on canvas)     * Content: Dual self-portrait. White lace (European) vs. peasant (Mexican). Intertwined hearts and veins.

  • Fountain (Marcel Duchamp. 1950 C.E.1950 \text{ C.E.} (original 19171917))     * Content: Dada. Upside-down urinal signed "R. Mutt." Redefining art as a concept (readymade).

Indigenous Americas (Unit Five)

  • Mesa Verde cliff dwellings (Colorado. Ancestral Puebloan. 450450-1300 C.E.1300 \text{ C.E.} Sandstone)     * Content: Over 600600 structures. Kivas (underground ceremonial rooms) with firepits and a sipapu (hole for spirits).

  • Great Serpent Mound (Ohio. Mississippian. 1070 C.E.1070 \text{ C.E.})     * Form: Largest snake effigy mound in the world. Head points east; aligns with astrological events and Haley’s Comet.

  • Templo Mayor (Tenochtitlan. Aztecs. 13751375-1520 C.E.1520 \text{ C.E.})     * Content: Dedicated to Huitzilopochtli (War/Sun; red side) and Tlaloc (Rain/Agriculture; blue side).

  • City of Machu Picchu (Peru. Inka. 14501450-1540 C.E.1540 \text{ C.E.})     * Content: High-altitude estate for Inka rulers. Includes the Intihuatana (ritual stone ritual area).

Africa (Unit Six)

  • Great Mosque of Djenné (Mali. Foundation 1200 C.E.1200 \text{ C.E.}; rebuilt 19061906)     * Form: Largest mud-brick structure. Includes torons (wood poles) for replastering festival (crepissage).

  • Sika dwa kofi (Golden Stool) (Ashanti people. 1700 C.E.1700 \text{ C.E.})     * Context: Thought to have descended from the heavens. Contains the soul of the Ashanti nation.

  • Reliquary figure (byeri) (Fang peoples. 1919-20th century C.E.20\text{th century C.E.} Wood)     * Content: Abstracted adult body with infant-like proportions (high forehead, bulging belly button) representing lifecycle.

West and Central Asia (Unit Seven)

  • Petra, Jordan: Treasury and Great Temple (Nabataean. 400 B.C.E.400 \text{ B.C.E.}-100 C.E.100 \text{ C.E.})     * Form: Hellenistic styles carved into red rock face. Treasury facade is 24.9×38.77 meters24.9 \times 38.77 \text{ meters}.

  • The Kaaba (Mecca. Granite masonry and silk)     * Content: Black brocade cloth (Kiswah) with Quranic calligraphy. Muslims circumambulate the structure 55 times.

South, East, and Southeast Asia (Unit Eight)

  • Great Stupa at Sanchi (India. Buddhist. 300 B.C.E.300 \text{ B.C.E.}-100 C.E.100 \text{ C.E.})     * Content: Chatra (triple umbrella) representing Buddha, Doctrine, and Community. Circumambulation path.

  • Terracotta warriors (Qin Dynasty. 221 B.C.E.221 \text{ B.C.E.})     * Content: Life-sized army to guard the emperor's tomb. Features mercury rivers representing the landscape.

  • Taj Mahal (Agra, India. 16321632-1653 C.E.1653 \text{ C.E.})     * Context: Mausoleum for Shah Jahan’s favorite wife, Mumtaz Mahal.     * Form: White marble with pietra dura (semi-precious stone inlay).

The Pacific (Unit Nine)

  • Nan Madol (Micronesia. 700700-1600 C.E.1600 \text{ C.E.} Basalt)     * Content: City built on reefs with crisscrossing canals. Islets for rituals, like holding sacred eels.

  • Moai on platform (Easter Island. 11001100-1600 C.E.1600 \text{ C.E.})     * Form: About 887887 statues made from volcanic tuff. Represent ancestral spirits.