Italian Army Doctrine and Land Operations Study Guide

The Mission and Doctrine of the Army

The primary mission of the Italian Army is to train and prepare units, departments, and packages of forces and capabilities integrated into the Joint Military Instrument. This ensures the army acts as the land operational component for the defense of the State and its vital interests. Furthermore, it contributes to the safeguarding of free institutions, the realization of international peace and security, and provides support to national authorities during public calamities or cases of extraordinary necessity and urgency.

Military doctrine is defined verbatim as the complex of fundamental principles that inform the actions conducted by the armed forces to achieve objectives. While it possesses an authoritative character, its application necessitates judgment and discernment. Doctrine facilitates an understanding of the approach to military operations and encompasses the principles and procedures intended to provide a common vision and a uniform conceptual basis for the actions of a complex organization. It is oriented toward "how to think" rather than "what to think."

In the hierarchy of doctrinal documentation, the PDE-1 (CAPSTONE) serves as the central document from which all other publications, known as KEYSTONE, descend. This top-level doctrine inspires analytical doctrine including Army Support Publications (PSE, CORNERSTONE), employment doctrine (Army Employment Publications - PIE), and technical regulations (Army Technical Publications - PTE).

Doctrinal Approach and Standardization

The Army's doctrinal approach is fundamentally centered on joint principles and those of NATO, with a primary focus on interoperability. Interoperability is the capacity to operate in synergy while performing assigned tasks. To achieve this, standardization activities must be developed across three dimensions: Technical (hardware and communication systems), Procedural (doctrine and Standing Operating Procedures - SOP), and Human (language, education, and training).

Military doctrine refers to the present, yet due to the changing nature of the land operational environment, it is considered a dynamic branch that undergoes constant revision. This evolution is managed through the DOTLMFI framework, which stands for Doctrine, Organization, Training, Material, Leadership, Personnel, Facilities, and Interoperability. Learning and adaptation occur through the collection, analysis, and dissemination of "Lessons Identified" (LI) from operational interactions; these become "Lessons Learned" (LL) only when implemented into the doctrinal body.

Nature and Characteristics of Conflicts

Armed conflicts represent a mode of interaction between two or more collectivities driven by the desire to pursue "vital interests" that are inherently antithetical or irreconcilable. Practically, war is a violent clash of interests between organized groups characterized by the use of force. Traditionally represented by nation-states, these groups now include non-state actors with political agendas capable of military-level force with significant international consequences. The objective of every actor in an armed conflict is to impose their will on the opponent, using the systematic exercise of force—or the threat thereof—via the Military Instrument. War is the extreme form of conflict within the broader spectrum of military intervention.

Military Art and Science

The discipline governing the use of military force in combat is described as "Military Art and Science." War as an Art requires Commanders to utilize creativity, flexibility, and intuition. This artistic component is necessary to face an adaptive enemy and heterogeneous environmental conditions. It is a function of the unpredictability of human behavior and intangible elements. Commanders must use technical professional skills, judgment, and experience to sense the unique nature of an operational context and creatively devise plans for success.

Conversely, War as a Science involves a rigorous approach based on the study and application of theoretical and experimental methods. This includes understanding the limitations and potential of systems and technology, as well as the physical laws governing natural phenomena that affect operations. For analytical purposes, Military Art is divided into five correlated branches:

1. Strategy: Explores the ways ($ways$) to employ available means ($means$) to reach the ends ($ends$) of war.
2. Operational Art: Examines how to synchronize and exploit resources for the victory of a military campaign.
3. Tactics: Studies how to deploy and maneuver forces to win battles.
4. Organics: Investigates how best to organize military forces for effective combat.
5. Logistics: Analyzes how to support military forces so they can live, move, and fight efficiently.

Enduring and Changing Nature of War

War possesses a durable nature (immutable objective elements) and a changing character (subjective traits). Its durable nature includes being a human phenomenon (influenced by psychological variables), a political phenomenon (expression of collective will), and an antagonistic phenomenon (clash of opposing wills). Its changing character is driven by transitory factors like technological progress, the methods of state confrontation, the causes of conflict, and geographic environments.

Every conflict shares common objective elements:

1. Friction: An infinite number of factors and actors clashing, creating an "attrition" that makes even simple objectives difficult to achieve.
2. Uncertainty: The "fog of war" where results are obscured by unknown factors.
3. Chaos: Unpredictable and irregular evolution of events requiring exceptional leadership and stress management.
4. Danger: The primordial instinct of self-preservation. Discipline and esprit de corps are required to overcome this instinct.
5. Emotional Stress: Influenced by individual dimensions, mission-related factors, and personal affections. Resilience is fostered through realistic training, unit cohesion, and positive leadership.

The Nature of Land Combat

Land conflict is distinct due to several factors. Terrain impact is decisive; fighters who manipulate the terrain gain benefits. Climate (heat, cold, extreme precipitation) affects human behavior and visibility. The dimension of forces is critical; large masses of combat formations and support elements are required as one cannot control extensive areas with few machines or men. Superiority requires "boots on the ground." Logistics is complex as units must be equipped, fed, and supported.

A defining characteristic is "Close Combat," the obligation to dominate the last $500\,\text{meters}$ of the battlefield. Success requires maneuvering to search for contact and physically neutralizing the opponent; hitting from a distance is insufficient. Land Power is the ability in peace, crisis, or war to gain, maintain, and exploit control over territory and populations to influence their behavior through real or potential deployment of land forces.

Contemporary land combat is increasingly:

• Congested: High urbanization and population density limit freedom of maneuver.
• Cluttered: Maneuver spaces are crowded with legitimate and illegitimate combatants and non-combatants, making threat identification difficult.
• Contested: Cheap military technology (anti-air, anti-ship, IEDs, unmanned vehicles) allows adversaries to deny access. This is known as A2AD (Anti-Access/Area-Denial). A2 involves intercepting aircraft or missiles to deny access, while AD involves limiting maneuver within the area.
• Connected: Globalized flows of information and people make infrastructure protection complex and media influence immediate.
• Constrained: Legal, moral, and political restrictions limit force and require legal experts in targeting processes.
• Lethal: Increased firepower and battlefield surveillance require specific countermeasures.
• Cyber-Vulnerable: Threats in the cyber space can inhibit or destroy data and hardware, obstructing maneuver.

Principles of the Art of War

Military operations are guided by several principles, drawn from NATO AJP-01 and AJP-03 publications. Objectives must be clear, achievable, and hierarchical (Strategic supported by Operational, supported by Tactical). The twelve principles are:

1. Unity of Effort: Ensuring all means are directed toward a common objective through Unity of Command.
2. Freedom of Action: Minimizing restrictions and maintaining initiative.
3. Flexibility: The ability to fulfill multiple functions (versatility) and adapt (reactivity).
4. Initiative: Controlling the rhythm of operations to force the enemy to react.
5. Simplicity: Choosing less complex lines of action and providing clear, concise orders.
6. Concentration of Forces: Sychronizing units and capabilities at the "main effort" ($gravitazione$).
7. Economy of Force: Creating critical mass at the favorable point by reducing presence in less important areas.
8. Offensive Spirit: Constantly seeking to overwhelm the opponent physically, cognitively, and morally.
9. Surprise: Striking at an unexpected time or place to disorient the opponent.
10. Security: Protecting forces and communication lines across all dimensions.
11. Morale: Sustaining the willpower and combat capacity of personnel.

The Operating Environment and Actors

The operating environment includes all factors impacting military capabilities and decision-making. A Theater of Operations is a continental or sub-continental area assigned to a single Commander. Effectiveness in this environment requires the Comprehensive Approach, a multi-dimensional crisis management methodology involving the coordination of military, stabilization, and humanitarian efforts. To understand this environment, the PMESII system logic is used, analyzing Political, Military, Economic, Social, Infrastructure, and Information variables.

Actors in this environment include regular forces (state-authorized) and irregular forces (non-state, acting outside international law). Threats are classified as Symmetric (regular forces), Asymmetric (dissimilar methods like IEDs to exploit weaknesses), or Hybrid (combining conventional, irregular, and asymmetric activities). Conflicts are categorized similarly as Symmetric, Asymmetric, or Hybrid (long-term strategies to avoid defeat).

Decision Levels and Responsibilities

There are three decision-making levels:

1. Politico-Strategic: The Government of the Italian Republic, which defines security policy and the "strategic end state."
2. Politico-Military: The Minister of Defense, who implements security lines for the Ministry.
3. Strategic-Military: The Chief of Defense (Ca. SMD), acting as Commander in Chief (CINC).

Responsibility levels (Strategic, Operational, Tactical) connect objectives to activities. The Strategic level determines national security goals and issues planning directives. The Operational level translates strategic intent into campaign planning in a theater. The Tactical level involves planning and conducting activities, engagements, and battles. Combat is defined as a short-duration armed clash, while a Battle is a collection of correlated combats, usually longer and involving substantial forces.

Spectrum of Conflict and Military Activities

The spectrum of conflict is defined by the intensity of the use of force and violence. A campaign consists of military operations to achieve a strategic objective in a set area/time and is classified by themes: Combat, Security, Peace Support, and Peacetime Military Activities.

Military activities can be sequential or simultaneous to maintain the initiative:

• Offensive: To defeat the opponent visually or morally.
• Defensive: To resist enemy offensive activities.
• Stability: To support the stabilization of a crisis area.
• Enabling: Conducted to link or support other activities.

Role and Missions of the Italian Army

Based on Article $52$ of the Constitution and Article $89$ of the Code of Military Order (COM), the Army has four missions:

1. Defense of the State: Safeguarding territorial integrity and vital interests.
2. Defense of Euro-Atlantic and Euro-Mediterranean areas: Contributing to NATO collective defense.
3. Contribution to international peace and security: Crisis management operations.
4. Specific tasks and competitions: Support during public calamities and environmental protection.

The Army functions as a "force provider" for the National Integrated Force (FIN), offering packages of forces and capabilities. Its specific functions are threat prevention, stabilization of crisis areas, and influencing the operational environment through partnership with local populations.

Combat Capacity and Operational Functions

Combat capacity is the destructive or disruptive force a unit can use, depending on the will to act, situational understanding, and decisive operation. It comprises three components: Physical (material), Cognitive (non-material), and Morale (non-material).

Operational functions assist in planning and training. There are eight: (1) Manoeuvre; (2) Fires; (3) Command and Control; (4) Intelligence (Land Information); (5) Information (Info-Ops); (6) Sustainment (logistics); (7) Force Protection; (8) Civil-Military Cooperation (CIMIC).

Approaches to Land Operations

The Army employs the Manoeuvrist Approach at the tactical level. This indirect method targets the opponent's will to fight and cohesion rather than just their physical destruction. It seeks to attack weaknesses to shatter the opponent's moral and cognitive balance while still allowing for direct force when necessary to fix the enemy.

Command is decentralized via the Mission Command philosophy (centralized planning, decentralized execution). This promotes individual initiative. Its six elements are:

1. Clear illustration of the Commander's intent.
2. Encouragement of disciplined initiative at all levels.
3. Orders based on the mission rather than detailed methods.
4. Allocation of necessary resources and information sharing.
5. Acceptance of prudent risk and tolerance of execution errors (but not errors of omission).
6. Building relationships based on mutual trust.

Finally, the Learning and Adaptation Cycle allows units to adapt faster than the adversary through four phases: Understand (identify need for change), Orient (synthesize need), Decide (develop change), and Act (apply change).