Semester Exam Review Guide - History HL Y1 (Fall, 2025)

Semester Exam Review Guide - History HL Y1 (Fall, 2025)

Instructions: Define each of the following terms and concepts in preparation for the semester exam. You may work on this review guide either by yourself or with one partner from the same class section as you. Turn in your own copy of the review guide to the appropriate assignment in Google Classroom.

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Mexican Revolution

Porfirio Díaz
1. Identity
  1. Was a Mexican general and politician who served as the dictator of Mexico for over 30 years, from 1876 to 1911.
  2. Opposed Benito Juarez in the 1871 election, lost, opposed Lerdo in his reelection, lost again, led a series of battles and eventually proclaimed himself as president of Mexico.
  3. At first, Díaz ruled as a liberal, but soon challenged term limits and amended the constitution so that he could stay in power indefinitely. He would be reelected almost continuously until 1911.
  4. ruled as a dictator, but with the illusion of legalism and democracy.
2. Goals/Features of Presidency
  1. promoted modernization and economic growth while maintaining strict political control.
3. Significance
  1. His authoritarian rule and the growing inequality under the Porfiriato directly sparked the Mexican Revolution.
Porfiriato
1. Diaz’s rule was called this.
2. Beneficial to Mexico because:
  1. Political stability (Paz Porfiriana)
  2. Economic growth
  3. Building of infrastructure
  4. Eliminated Mexican debt
  5. Commercializing and professionalizing mining, textiles, ranching, railroad, oil industry, and banking industries.
  6. Modernization of cities, especially Mexico City.
3. Díaz only really supported the elite. As a result, there was widespread discontent with Díaz’s rule and a growing gap between rich and poor.
Científicos
1. highly capable advisers and cabinet members or highly educated intellectuals who deeply believed in capitalism and Positivism.
Social, Economic, and Political Factors leading to the Mexican Revolution
1. Social - large class divisions; displacement of peasants due to hacienda expansion; poor working conditions.
2. Economic - Economic dependence on foreign investment; growing inequality; concentration of land in few hands.
3. Political
  1. Porfirio Díaz’s repressive rule
  2. Relied on guardias rurales to quell dissent, suppress peasant revolts, and break strikes.
  3. “Pan o palo”
    1. Bread or the stick
    2. Cooperation with the regime would lead to benefits (bread), while resistance would be met with harsh consequences (the stick)
  4. Dissidents were imprisoned in San Juan de Ulúa or Belén Prison.
Francisco Madero
1. Identity
  1. Was from a wealthy family in Coahuila, and a previous supporter of Diaz.
  2. Madero ran on a moderate platform, advocating fully democratic elections, presidential term limits, but only limited land reforms and economic reforms (this appealed to the upper classes, business owners, and foreign investors).
  3. He gained the support of lower classes by vaguely promising land reforms.
  4. Díaz arrested Madero in early June 1910, making him ineligible to run for the presidency. Díaz was reelected on June 21, 1910 by an overwhelming margin.
2. Goals
  1. Overthrow Diaz, install a new government that will eventually fix the economic and social needs of the country.
  2. Free elections, political democracy, limited land reform.
3. Significance
  1. Sparked the first phase of the revolution but lost support from more radical revolutionaries for failing to deliver major reforms.
    1. Limited land reforms and economic reforms, gained the support of lower classes by vaguely promising land reforms, carried out his aims slowly.
Plan de San Luis Potosi
1. Declared the 1910 presidential elections void.
2. Called for armed revolution against the Díaz regime starting on Nov. 20, 1910 at 6:00pm.
3. Promised free elections and democratic political reforms.
4. “Sufragio Efectivo, No Reelección!”
5. Workers given basic right to unionize, collective bargain, and to assemble.
6. Criticisms/shortcomings: only vague references to land reform and labor reform. Mostly contained political reforms, which were not a priority for campesinos and laborers. Many peasants were already rebelling and did not need the Plan to prompt them to action.
Emiliano Zapata
1. Identity
  1. a mestizo farmer
2. Aims of Movement
  1. To acquire and return land that was usurped by elite and foreigners back to its original owner.
  2. Issues: Wanted more land reform than others, focused on Morelos which created an inability for him to solve national problems, and refused to compromise with other leaders.
3. Tactics
  1. led armed groups of Indian farmers (primarily sugarcane) against haciendas that had taken their land.
  2. Used a large military force and guerilla tactics. Used his control to seize and redistribute resources. Displayed himself as a Robin-Hood type character to gain support and recruited fighters from local villages who brought valuable loyalty and knowledge.
  3. He was attracted by the promise of land reform (albeit vague) in the Plan de San Luis Potosí, and allied his forces with Madero.
4. Outcome of Rebellion
  1. Killed by assasination when driving from Parral to Canutillo.
Plan de Ayala
1. Rejected Madero’s presidency and called for free elections.
2. Designated Pascual Orozco as the leader of the revolution.
3. *Redistribution of land seized under the Porfiriato to the towns and farmers (rightful owners); hacendados should no longer own that farmland.
4. Emphasized the agrarian nature of the revolution.
5. In an attempt to deal with the revolts by his former revolutionary allies, Madero appointed Victoriano Huerta as commander of Mexico’s federal forces, and sent Huerta to Morelos in order to defeat the Zapatista rebellion.
Pancho Villa - identity, aims of movement, tactics, outcome of rebellion
1. Identity
  1. Son of a field laborer, spent his adolescence as a fugitive, was a cattle driver (and bandit) who commanded a militia of small-scale ranchers, cowboys, and unemployed ranch workers.
  2. a cattle driver (and bandit) who commanded a militia of small-scale ranchers, cowboys, and unemployed ranch workers. His followers did not desire farmland and were not concerned with land reform—they mostly wanted steady ranching jobs.
  3. Was made a colonel in the federal military by Madero
  4. Huerta disliked Villa, and considered him and followers undisciplined bandits—not real soldiers.
  5. Huerta nearly executed Villa after Villa’s insubordination, and Madero intervened
  6. to stop the execution. Madero directed Huerta to instead imprison Villa.
  7. This angered Huerta, especially after Villa escaped prison and returned to Chihuahua as an independent rebel. Villa stopped his support of Madero.
  8. By the end of 1911, Villa commanded over 7,000 anti-Madero rebels.
2. Aims of Movement
  1. Improve conditions for the poor, reform land and wealth, limit the power of large land owners and foreign corporations.
  2. Issues: His aims at times were contradictory and most of the time non-existent, like he was in permanent revolution mode. If Villa had a political agenda, it was not communicated well
3. Tactics
  1. Used a large military force and guerilla tactics. Used his control to seize and redistribute resources. Displayed himself as a Robin-Hood type character to gain support and recruited fighters from local villages who brought valuable loyalty and knowledge.
4. Outcome of Rebellion
  1. Killed by assasination when driving from Parral to Canutillo.
5. Villa’s militia was called the División del Norte. Madero then placed Villa under Huerta’s command.
  1. Madero sent Villa to attack Orozco in Chihuahua, and Villa achieved victory in numerous battles. This damaged Orozco’s reputation as a competent military commander.
General Victoriano Huerta - identity and significance
1. Identity
  1. Military general who overthrew and assassinated Madero in 1913.
2. Significance
  1. His dictatorship (1913–1914) marked the “Decena Trágica” and intensified revolutionary opposition, leading to his eventual overthrow
  2. Latin American and European countries mostly recognized Huerta’s rule, but only under pressure from their ambassadors to Mexico, who were in turn influenced by foreign companies who stood to gain by Huerta’s business-friendly rule.
  3. Once in power, Huerta took the following actions:
    1. Sent the federal military to control the states.
    2. Abolished Congress.
    3. Ousted local officials and replaced them with trusted military commanders.
    4. Imprisoned anyone who he suspected opposed him.
    5. Demanded recognition of his presidency from local governors. All but 3 gave it; one who did not was thrown under a train.
    6. Encouraged hacienda owners to organize private armies to protect their land.
    7. Reinstated government officials who were expelled from power by Madero.
    8. Controlled Mexico with intimidation and militarism.
    9. Huerta symbolized the reactionary element of the Mexican Revolution.
Role of the U.S. in Mexican Revolution
1. The U.S. shifted between neutrality, intervention, and economic interest throughout the revolution.
2. The U.S. recognized, but neither supported nor opposed Huerta, instead sending former Minnesota Governor John Lind to assess Huerta’s rule. Lind suggested that Huerta should resign and new elections should be held in Mexico.
3. Effects: Huerta became hostile to the United States, and suspected the U.S. of attempting to meddle in Mexican affairs.
Venustiano Carranza- identity, goals, features of presidency, significance
1. Identity
  1. Family politician, adorer of Benito Juarez and well educated
2. Goals
  1. overthrow Díaz, political reform, establish a constitutional government.
3. Features of Presidency
  1. Had authoritarian techniques, conflicts with other revolutionary leaders, and a conservative approach to land reforms.
  2. Used legalism and military force. Also used the Plan of Guadalupe to claim constitutional legitimacy, and built the Constitutionalist Army.
4. Was betrayed and assassinated while fleeing Mexico City after a rebellion by Obregón’s supporters. Was ambushed and assassinated in the mountains of Puebla.
5. Significance
  1. Drafted the progressive 1917 Mexican Constitution and became the first president of the new republic.
  2. He successfully led the Constitutionalist faction against military leaders like Victoriano Huerta and was important in creating a legal framework that aimed to address land reform, labor rights, and social justice, although its implementation was slow.
Plan de Guadalupe (include the additions Carranza made to it in 1915)
1. declared only that Huerta should be removed from power and that Carranza should be declared the “First Chief of the Constitutionalist Army.” Once Carranza took over, according to the plan, free elections would be held.
2. contained no language regarding social or economic reforms. Main criticism: short-sighted.
3. Carranza added provisions that included labor reform, land redistribution, minimum wage laws, and the ability to unionize and strike.
Constitution of 1917 - main provisions
1. Article 3 – Education
  1. Public education will be mandatory, free of charge, and secular (not affiliated with religion; laïca.)
  2. The federal government would control the curriculum taught in schools.
  3. No religious institution may establish or control a school.
  4. Previous to this law, the Catholic church controlled education, and it was often prohibitively expensive and/or unavailable outside of the large cities.
  5. Effects: huge improvement in quality of education and access.
2. Article 24 and 130 – Church Reform
  1. People are free to practice any religion.
  2. The Catholic Church could only own land that was used for worship purposes; no more land for monetary gain.
  3. Separation of church and state.
  4. Limited number of priests in each state; limited political rights of clergy.
  5. The Church no longer had judicial authority.
  6. The Church could not criticize the government.
  7. Effects: Enforcement of these articles was not immediate, but actually began under President Calles. This led to the Cristero Rebellion in 1926.
3. Article 27 – Land Reform
  1. The government had authority over all land.
  2. The government had the right to take over any land (and to redistribute it) if it was in the public interest or if the national need ever arose. (Eminent domain).
  3. Placed restrictions on foreign ownership of land; any disputes involving foreign owners of land would be resolved by Mexican courts.
  4. Mexico will own all mineral (subsoil) rights over the land.
  5. Effects: Increased the authority of the Mexican government; gave the gov. leverage against foreign companies. Set the stage for land redistribution under Calles and especially Cárdenas. This article was highly popular with Zapatistas and farmworkers, but it caused conflict with the United States.
4. Article 123 – Labor Reform
  1. Gave workers the right to form unions and to strike.
  2. Limits on daily working hours; at least one day off per week; no work on certain holidays.
  3. Workers’ compensation in cases of injury while on the job.
  4. Improved working conditions and workplace safety.
  5. Workers must be paid in cash, not scrip (credit that could only be used at the tienda de raya).
5. Article 123 – Labor Reform
  1. Established minimum wage.
  2. Outlawed child labor.
  3. Maternity leave for women.
  4. Equal pay for equal work.
  5. Effects: Short term: unions were formed and more strikes occurred. However, working conditions eventually improved as unions formed and demanded more strength and would play a central role in Mexican politics and society.
6. Article 4 – gave women equality under the law; however, real advances in women’s rights would come later.
7. Articles 6 and 7 – freedom of speech and a free press.
8. Article 8 – freedom of assembly and petition.
9. Article 10 – right to own firearms.
10. Articles 13 and 14 – federal government would control the courts; due process; no retroactive laws (ex post facto laws).
11. Article 17 – all legal disputes must be resolved in a court of law.
12. Article 22 – outlawed cruel and unusual punishment.
13. Articles 32 and 33 – needs of Mexican citizens were given preference over those of the foreigners in court disputes.
Álvaro Obregón
1. Identity
  1. Revolutionary general and president (1920–1924).
  2. Carranza named Obregon “Head of Military Operations.” After Obregon joined Carranza, Carranza renamed his army the “Army of the Northwest,” and they numbered more than 40,000.
2. Military History
  1. supported Madero against Huerta and later joined the Constitutionalist forces under Carranza.
  2. famously defeated Pancho Villa at the Battle of Celaya (1915) using modern tactics like barbed wire, trenches, and machine guns.
3. Goals
  1. Rebuild Mexico after the civil war.
  2. Reconcile revolutionary factions and stabilize the country.
  3. Restore the economy and strengthen government institutions.
  4. Promote national education and cultural renewal through figures like José Vasconcelos.
  5. Reduce Church influence and implement moderate land reforms.
4. Features of Presidency
  1. Expanded public education, especially in rural areas.
  2. Began limited land redistribution, though less extensive than later under Cárdenas.
  3. Supported labor rights by cooperating with unions such as the CROM (Confederación Regional Obrera Mexicana).
  4. Strengthened the central government and built the foundation for the future Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) system.
5. Significance
  1. ended large-scale revolutionary violence and began establishing the revolution’s ideas
Plan de Agua Prieta
1. called for armed struggle against Carranza
Plutarco Elías Calles- identity, goals, features of presidency, significance
1. Obregon managed to transfer power peacefully to his successor, Plutarco Elias Calles in 1924; this had not been done since 1880.
2. Key Developments of Plutarco Elias Calles’s Presidency:
  1. Strengthened and organized the Mexican revolutionary government
  2. Was more devoted to fulfilling the 1917 Constitution than Obregon.
3. Presidency of Plutarco Elias Calles (1924-1928)
  1. Passed the Petroleum Law, which required oil companies to apply for permission to keep their holdings. This law was meant to enforce Article 27, in contrast to the Bucareli Agreement (previous Obregon agreement).
  2. This backfired on Calles, as foreign oil companies feared expropriation and took their business elsewhere. 65% reduction in oil production during Calles administration.
  3. Alien Land Law - limited foreign ownership of agricultural estates.
  4. Calles Law, which drastically restricted the activities of the Catholic Church.
  5. These first 2 laws angered the US and placed strain on the US/Mexico diplomatic relationship.
  6. Distributed more than 8 million acres of land to ejidos (Obregon only distributed 3 million).
  7. Established credit banks for campesinos.
  8. Established the Banco de Mexico as Mexico’s official bank.
  9. Renegotiated foreign debt.
El Maximato
1. Plutarcco Elias Calles as the real power behind the scenes during the terms of the three presidents to succeed him:
  1. Emilio Portes Gil: 1928-1930
  2. Pascual Ortiz Rubio: 1930-1932
  3. Abelardo L. Rodriguez: 1932-1934
2. In 1929, Calles created and led the Partido Nacional Revolucionario (PNR) in order to ensure a solid base of support so that he could continue to influence the government.
3. Publicly, he said that the party was needed to fulfill revolutionary objectives that still had not been met.
  1. WWI - 1914-1918
  2. WWII - 1939-1945
  3. 1929 - stock market crash → Great Depression
4. Through his leadership of the PNR, Calles became known as “EL Jefe Maximo”.
5. The presidents of the Maximato were mainly concerned with economic issues as a result of the Great Depression that also deeply affected Mexico.
6. The most independent of the three Maximato presidents was Gen. Abelardo Rodriguez.
7. President Rodriguez raised the minimum wage to 3 pesos per day and set up an Agriculture Department to redistribute land.
8. Under Rodriguez, nearly 3 million acres of land were redistributed to ejidos.
9. In 1934, Calles supported the candidacy of his longtime protege, Lazaro Cardenas, who would easily win the election.
CROM
1. Confederación Regional de Obreros Mexicanos);
2. National labor federation founded in 1918, aligned with the government.
3. Helped the state control labor movements but became corrupt and lost influence under Cárdenas.
PNR
1. In 1929, Calles created and led the Partido Nacional Revolucionario (PNR) in order to ensure a solid base of support so that he could continue to influence the government
2. Significance: First dominant national party, ancestor of today’s PRI; stabilized Mexican politics.
Luis Morones- identity, goals, significance
1. Identity
  1. Head of CROM and ally of Calles
2. Goals
  1. Rebuild and stabilize Mexico after years of war by uniting revolutionary factions, improving education, and restoring the economy through moderate reforms.
3. Significance
  1. Ended major revolutionary fighting, strengthened central authority, and laid the groundwork for Mexico’s one-party political system.
The Cristero Rebellion- causes, what happened, significance
1. The Catholic Church was infuriated with Articles 24 and 130. The Church rebelled in 1926 which led to the Cristero War against the federal government.
2. In August 1926, the Cristero Rebellion (La Cristiada) began, with pro-Catholic militias fighting against federal troops.
3. The rebellion had serious economic consequences. Major decline in oil and mineral exports, 40% decline in grain harvest over the three years.
4. Calles was not able to fully deal with the economic depression as a result of the falling agricultural production, worldwide decline in metal prices, decline in oil production, and the cost of fighting the Cristero War.
5. To help deal with the problem, Calles drastically reduced federal spending.
Emilio Portes Gil
1. Identity
  1. Interim president (1928–1930) under Calles’ influence.
2. Significance
  1. Oversaw the end of the Cristero Rebellion and laid groundwork for Cárdenas’s later reforms.
Pres. Ortíz Rubio
1. Identity
  1. President (1930–1932) during the Maximato.
2. Significance
  1. Continued Calles’s economic policies but had limited independence.
Gen. Abelardo Rodriguez- identity and significance
1. Identity
  1. The most independent of the three Maximato presidents
2. Significance
  1. President Rodriguez raised the minimum wage to 3 pesos per day and set up an Agriculture Department to redistribute land.
  2. Under Rodriguez, nearly 3 million acres of land were redistributed to ejidos.
  3. In 1934, Calles supported the candidacy of his longtime protege, Lazaro Cardenas, who would easily win the election.
Lázaro Cárdenas- identity, goals, accomplishments of presidency, significance
1. Goals
  1. Fulfill revolutionary ideals (land, labor, and education reform).
2. Presidency of Lazaro Cardenas (1934-1940)
  1. Known as a “cub of the Revolution”; PNR supported his candidacy.
  2. Desired to fully achieve the original goals of the revolution: land reform, labor reform; fully supported the Constitution of 1917.
  3. Cardenas advocated a corporatist state in which the government would mediate both class and political conflicts.
  4. Although originally allied with Calles, President Lazaro Cardena would reject Calles’ continued influence.
  5. Cardenas exiled Calles and Luis Morones (head of CROM) to the United States in April 1936.
3. Key Achievements of Lazaro Cardenas (1934-1940)
  1. Land Reforms
    1. Distributed 49.5 million acres of land to the landless poor.
    2. Strengthened the ejido system, which was uniquely Mexican agricultural collective; it was neither capitalists nor socialist. Farmers could share resources in an ejido, lowering overhead and increasingly profitability of ejidos.
    3. Founded the Banco de Credito Ejidal so that the poor farmers could get loans to buy equipment and seeds.
    4. CRITICISM: Land reforms took time to become successful, its implementation was not uniform throughout the whole country, and campesinos became dependent on the state.
  2. Labor Reforms
    1. Established a new labor union called the Confederacion de Trabajadores Mexicanos (CTM), which eventually supplanted CROM as the primary Mexican labor union. CTM members were loyal to Cardenas.
    2. Consolidated petroleum unions into one powerful union under the CTM.
    3. Liberally allowed workers to strike. He used strikes as opportunities to achieve reforms on behalf of Mexican workers.
    4. Nationalized railroads in 1936 after a workers’ strike.
  3. Economic Reforms
    1. Practiced Keynesian economics (John Maynard Keynes) by insisting that the state have a greater role in the economy.
    2. Nationalized the oil industry following an oil workers’ strike. The nationalization occurred in March 1938. This is seen as his greatest, most popular achievement.
    3. Not popular in the US but FDR advocated the “Good Neighbor Policy” which discouraged US political or military intervention in Latin America.
    4. Oil companies had to be reimbursed for the confiscated property, but many Mexicans personally donated money to pay them.
    5. Created PEMEX, the state-run company that has exclusive rights to extract, refine, and sell petroleum and petroleum products.
  4. Political Reforms
    1. Disbanded the PNR and replaced it with the Partido Revolucionacio Mexicano (PRM) in 1938.
    2. The PRM would become the primary party of Mexico.
Soldadera
1. During the war, many women served in support roles.
2. Women followed their husbands to battlefields in order to continue in their supportive roles as wives and mothers.
3. These women were called soldaderas, and they helped set up camp, cleaned, cooked, transported equipment, gathered water and firewood, built shelters, cared for animals, and administered medical care. They were also known as “adelitas.”
4. Most soldaderas were parts of the northern armies, which were more mobile and less village-based than in the south.
5. Many rebels would have been unable to fight if it were not for these women’s contributions, according to historians.
6. Some soldaderas had a direct military role, in which they:
  1. Directly fought in battles
  2. Conducted espionage (spying)
  3. Wrote and distributed propaganda
  4. Carried messages and battle reports
  5. Distributed equipment and ammunition
    1. A famous soldadera is Amelia (Amelio) Robles (1889-1984)
      1. Worked her way up to the rank of Colonel. Fought on the side of the Zapatista rebellion from 1913-1918.
      2. Was later loyal to General Obregon.
    2. Three other famous soldaderas are
      1. Petra Herrera (Fought for Pancho Villa)
      2. Angela Jimenez (fought for Carranza and other rebel groups)
      3. Maria de la Luz Espinosa Barrera (fought for Emiliano Zapata)
Goals and Nature of the expansion of education during Obregón, Calles, and Cárdenas
1. Obregón: Expanded public education; rural schools; secular curriculum under José Vasconcelos.
2. Calles: Continued expansion but with tighter state control and secular emphasis.
3. Cárdenas: Made education socialist, rural-focused, and accessible to indigenous and peasant communities.
Impact of Mexican Revolution on Visual Art (discuss Muralist movement)
1. State-sponsored mural movement that used public art to promote revolutionary ideals.
2. Educated the illiterate population about Mexico’s history and identity; celebrated indigenous culture and social justice.
Indigenismo
1. Cultural and political movement celebrating Mexico’s indigenous heritage and promoting inclusion.
2. Reinforced national identity and inspired educational, artistic, and land policies, especially under Cárdenas.
José Vasconcelos- identity and significance
1. The main driving force behind the development of education and of the arts during the revolution was Jose Vasconelos.
2. He was named Secretary of Education under President Obregon. Obregon wholeheartedly supported Vasconcelos’ efforts.
3. Vasconcelos was a writer, editor, teacher, and government official; spearheaded the rural education campaign in 1920.
4. He was nicknamed the “cultural claudillo” of Mexico.
5. Vasconcelos believed that Mexicans were “la raza cosmica” meaning that Mexicans represented the best features of indigenous, mestizo, European, and African peoples.
Diego Rivera
1. Identity
  1. Born into a middle-class family in Guanajuato, Rivera studied art in Mexico and Europe. He became a muralist after being influenced by the Mexican Revolution’s call for social reform and by Renaissance fresco techniques he saw in Italy.
2. Key Characteristics of Art
  1. Large, public murals depicting industrial progress, Mexican history, and the struggles of workers and indigenous people; bold colors and strong, clear forms.
3. Significance
  1. Made art accessible to the public
  2. Used art to educate the public and promote social justice; blended indigenous and Marxist themes.
José Clemente Orozco
1. Identity
  1. Orozco lost a hand in a childhood accident and often focused on human suffering and conflict. His experiences during the revolution pushed him to explore its darker, more tragic side.
2. Key Characteristics of Art
  1. Cartoonist
  2. Dramatic figures, intense movement, and a focus on pain, violence, and moral struggle; expressive use of red and gray tones.
3. Significance
  1. His murals offered a more critical and emotional view of the revolution, highlighting the cost of progress and the complexity of human nature.
David Alfaro Siqueiros
1. Identity
  1. Revolutionary soldier who had fought and witnessed the tragedies of the revolution and was now a political activist
2. Key Characteristics of Art
  1. Dynamic compositions, perspective distortion, and use of modern materials like spray guns and industrial paints to create dramatic, energetic scenes.
3. Significance
  1. Pushed the boundaries of muralism technologically and politically, influencing modern public art and activism worldwide.
Juan O’Gormann
1. Identity
  1. Trained as both an architect and artist, O’Gorman was inspired by Rivera’s ideas but combined them with functional architecture and education.
2. Key Characteristics of Art
  1. Integrated murals into buildings; geometric designs with themes of history, science, and the progress of humanity.
3. Significance
  1. Bridged architecture and muralism, showing how art could transform public spaces and reflect intellectual as well as cultural identity.

Good Neighbor Policy, US Neutrality, Hemispheric Reaction to European Events

Good Neighbor Policy
1. Began under Hoover during the Great Depression.
2. Clark Memorandum (1930) - Roosevelt’s Corollary not part of Monroe Doctrine. Monroe Doctrine meant to govern the relationship between US/LA and Europe, not between US and LA.
3. “In the fields of world policy, I would dedicate this Nation to the policy of the good neighbor: the neighbor who resolutely respects himself and, because he does so, respects the rights of others; the neighbor who respects his obligations and respects the sanctity of his agreements in and with a worlds of neighbors." FDR Inaugural Address
4. Important Quotes
  1. “No country has the right to intervene in the internal or external affairs of another.” - Secretary of State Cordell Hull, 1934
  2. “The definite policy of the US from now on is opposed to armed intervention.” - FDR, 1934
5. Aims
  1. Improve relations with negotiation over intervention, resuscitate trade, unity vs. European aggressors (fascism)
6. Impact
  1. US marine occupation of Nicaragua, the Dominican Republic and Haiti terminated in 1933 and 1934.
  2. The US negotiated a new treaty with Cuba in 1934 that undid the provisions of the 1903 treaty (both called Cuban-American treaty of Relations) except the US retained Guantanamo Bay.
7. The US ended Panama’s status as a protectorate as well.
8. When Mexico nationalized oil production and US oil companies pushed for armed intervention, FDR negotiated a settlement instead (1938).
9. FDR lowered tariffs on LA countries, improving their economies.
10. Roosevelt established the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-Amerocam (CIAA) to spread pro-American propaganda in LA and the Motion Picture Division to encourage Hollywood to portray Latinos in a positive light.
11. At the 1939 World’s Fair in New York, many Latin American countries competed with each other for American tourism.
Clark Memorandum (1930) - Roosevelt’s Corollary not part of Monroe Doctrine. Monroe Doctrine meant to govern the relationship between US/LA and Europe, not between US and LA.
Hull Alfaro Treaty (1936) - an agreement signed on 2 March by the United States and Panama that made certain concessions regarding the operation of the Panama Canal in keeping with Franklin Roosevelt’s Good Neighbor Policy.
1. The treaty didn’t transfer control of the canal or zone to Panama, but it reduced many aspects of U.S. dominance, granted Panama greater economic participation and rights, and ended older intervention powers under the 1903 treaty framework.
Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs - Roosevelt established the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-Amerocam (CIAA) to spread pro-American propaganda in LA and the Motion Picture Division to encourage Hollywood to portray Latinos in a positive light.
“War is a Racket” book publication - book by retired Marine officer Smedly Butler in 19344. Argued business profit from war and this pushed the US in WWI.
Neutrality Act of 1935 - Arms embargo for all parties at war. US citizens warned that they travel to these countries at their own risk. First invoked when Italy invaded Ethiopia.
1. Great Depression (1920-1940)
  1. Unemployment ↑
  2. Wages ↓
  3. Peoples’ trust in government and economy ↓↓↓
Neutrality Act of 1936 - forbade loans to belligerents. The Act did not cover civil wars (Spanish Civil War of 1936-1939) or items sold on credit. US companies sold $100,000,000 of military weaponry to General Francisco Franco on credit.
1. Belligerents - hostile
Neutrality Act of 1937 - extended embargo to civil wars and to “any passenger or articles,” exception for “cash-and-carry” clause. In 1937, Japan invaded China but neither side formally declared war.
Montevideo Conference (1933) - FDR declared the Good Neighbor Policy, US is opposed to armed intervention.
Buenos Aires Conference (1936) - FDR spent a month in South America, met by a huge friendly crowd. At Buenos Aires, the countries agreed to collaborate on the responses to disagreements.
Lima Conference (1938) - Declaration of the Solidarity of America - American countries would work to defend each other against all foreign enemies.
Havana Conference (1940)
1. Havana Conference - 1940, Pan-American conference, countries agree to unity vs. European threats. (FDR not in attendance; Sec of State Hull)
2. “An attack on one country in the Americas would be an attack on all.”
3. This result of this conference effectively reinforced the Monroe Doctrine.
Munich Agreement (1938) - The US vowed to remain neutral even in the face of Nazi aggression and the Munich Agreement of 1938. In 1939, Roosevelt allowed France and England to order aircraft on a “cash and carry” basis. FDR wanted to help England and France despite Neutrality Acts,
1. The Munich Agreement turns into appeasement; The agreement was broken on September 1st, 1939. The beginning of WW2.
2. The UK/France (Allies also include Canada) declare war against Germany, Italy and Japan (Axis Powers).
3. FDR will do what the American people want. We are going to try to stay out of the war as long as possible.
4. In April and May 1940, Germany invaded and conquered most of Europe except for Britain. The fall of Paris shocked Americans and isolationists sentiment evaporated.
“Arsenal of Democracy” - The US was the “Arsenal of Democracy” and supplied Britain without highlighting. Unemployment fell, Great Migration of 6 million.
Great Migration in the US during WWII - People migrated to big cities for work.
Destroyers for Bases Agreement (1949) - the U.S. gave Britain 50 old naval destroyers in exchange for 99-year leases on strategic military bases in British territories (Caribbean, Newfoundland, etc.), helping Britain fight WWII and shifting the U.S. from isolationism towards intervention, predating Lend-Lease but paving the way for greater aid.
Lend Lease Act (1941- 1945) - a U.S. program authorizing the President to lend, lease, or sell war supplies (weapons, food, materials) to nations deemed vital to American defense, primarily Britain, China, and the Soviet Union, bypassing neutrality laws to aid allies against Axis powers without direct U.S. entry into WWII, essentially making America the "arsenal of democracy" by providing critical aid like tanks, planes, and food before Pearl Harbor, marking a crucial step away from isolationism.
defense strategy in WWII
1. Defense of both coasts all the way south to Panama Canal, Monroe Doctrine, economic dependence + political upheavels, US commited to this whiel Mexico opened to more sides. The US took the European threat much more seriously than Mexico.
2. The US couldn't afford to waste resources defending the southern border and couldn’t occupy Mexico without significant international backlash. The US was forced to negotiate with Mexico, having significant leverage for once.

Mexico in WWII

54. Oil Expropriation in Mexico (main details and significance)

55. Economic relationship between Mexico and Axis countries (Germany and Japan) prior to WWII

56. Manuel Avila Camacho (Role and Significance in Mexico during WWII) 57. Nature of Mexican-American cooperation during WWII

58. Reasons for Mexican involvement in WWII (esp. military, economic, political) 59. Attacks on the Portero del Llano and Faja de Oro (What happened? Significance?) 60. Bracero Program

61. Aztec Eagles

Social Effects of WWII in the U.S.

Japanese-American contributions to U.S. war effort
Native American contributions to U.S. war effort
Effects of WWII on Native Americans
Effects of WWII on Hispanic Americans
Zoot Suit Riots
Women’s contributions to U.S. war effort (Nature, extent, significance)
African-American contributions to U.S. war effort
March on Washington Movement (MOWM)
A. Philip Randolph
Double V Campaign
Tuskegee Airmen
Executive Order 8802
Executive Order 9981
Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC)
1. Roosevelt compromised with Randolph and issued Executive Order 8802 and set up the Fair Employment Practices Commission to prevent discrimination at work. The FEPC found widespread discrimination not only among employers but among employees who didn’t want to work side by side with black Americans.

Treatment of Japanese-Americans

Ni’ihau Incident
1. FDR at first dismissed the fears, but public clamor grew stronger, especially as details of the Niihau incident emerged. Racial prejudice took precedence over facts.
  1. After bombing Pearl Harbor, a Japanese fighter pilot named Shigenori Nishikaichi crash-landed on the Hawaiian island of Niʻihau, a remote, privately owned island whose residents had no radio and didn’t yet know the U.S. and Japan were at war. At first, the islanders treated him as a guest, following local custom.
  2. Once they learned about the attack, they tried to detain him. Two residents of Japanese descent later helped the pilot escape, retrieve his weapon, and attempt to destroy classified materials from his plane. The situation escalated into violence, and Nishikaichi was ultimately killed by Native Hawaiian residents. One of the collaborators was also killed, and the other was arrested.
Alien Enemies Act
1. Section 1 of Alien Enemies Act
  1. Presidential Proclamation 2525-2527 – Japanese, German, and Italian nationals designated as enemy aliens. Presidential Proclamation 2537 (Jan 1942) required enemy aliens to register with the US DOJ.
Executive Order 9066
1. Allowed the creation of exclusion zones which ended up being most of the East and West coasts.
2. Mar (1942) General DeWitt issues Public Proclamation No. 1 – West Coast is Military Area No. 1, any citizens of enemy ancestry need to report their address if they move.
3. Executive Order 9095 – created Office of the Alien Property Custodian, froze many families’ assets
4. Public Proclamation No. 3 – Curfew in exclusion zones, Japanese informed that they need to leave
5. May 1942 – DeWitt orders all people of Japanese ancestry In Military Area No. 1 to report to assembly centers for supervised evacuation. Anyone at least 1/16 Japanese counted.
Executive Order 9095 – created Office of the Alien Property Custodian, froze many families’ assets
Wartime Civilian Control Agency (WCCA) - created by the military to oversee evacuations. WCCA found temporary facilities to house the interned until relocation centers were ready (usually race track, fairground, or other large outdoor venue)
War Relocation Agency (WRA) – civilian agency in charge of relocation and detention (started in Mar 1942, built 10 facilities in 9 months for 100k internees)
Scale of Japanese-American internment in US
1. 115k subject to detention, about 2/3 citizens, many noncitizens were residents who could not attain citizenship due to strict laws against them.
Conditions in Japanese-American internment camps
1. Camps were hastily constructed, military-style barracks with no amenities, families were unprepared for the elements.
2. Students allowed to leave for college, makeshift education system within camps woefully understaffed, under budgeted (short-term planning).
Korematsu v. United States (Dec. 18, 1944) – In a 6-3 ruling, the internment camps were ruled to be constitutional.
1. The majority decision was based on the idea that protecting the US against espionage and/or sabotage from Japanese nationals and Japanese Americans was more important during wartime than the civil liberties of these individuals.
2. Exclusion order rescinded (Jan. 1945)
Ex parte Endo (1944)
1. In the decision of Ex parte Endo (also decided on 12/18/44), the Supreme Court ruled 9-0 that the US had no legal justification to detain citizens who were deemed to be loyal to the government.
2. In preparation of the decision on the Ex parte Endo, the Roosevelt administration issued the Public Proclamation 21 on 12/17/44, effectively ending the exclusion orders.
3. Freed internees were given some money and a train ticket from their internment camps to their homes on the west coast starting in January 1945.
  1. In 1988, the US apologized for the internment of Japanese Americans. They were given a check of $20,000.
  2. Isei - Japanese Americans not born in the US
  3. Nisei - Japanese Americans born in the