2.F.1-2 David Hume and William Paley The Design Argument

The design argument asserts that the natural design in the world implies the existence of a designer.
Scriptural Reference: Old Testament Book of Psalms (19:1) states, "The heavens declare the glory of God; and the firmament shows his handiwork."
The passage emphasizes that the grandeur of nature serves as a testament to God's existence.

Questions to Consider:
- Are there natural phenomena that seem to demand a divine designer's explanation?
- Could God have used evolution as a means to create the designs we observe in nature?
- Does the complexity of design in nature necessitate belief in a singular, all-powerful God?

Aquinas' Contribution: Presented a condensed version of the design argument in his Summa Theologica (1266).
His fifth way states:
- Non-intelligent entities act towards an end (e.g., a tree grows).
- Such purposeful actions require intelligence; hence non-intelligent entities must be directed by an intelligent being (God).
His argument posits that:
- Objects lacking intelligence can only achieve their ends if guided by an intelligent being (e.g., an archer guiding an arrow).

After Aquinas, theologians adapted their arguments as scientific knowledge evolved.
The older cosmological perspectives gave way to mechanistic views of the universe governed by physical laws.
By the 18th century, the design argument often took a comparative form between human-created objects (machines) and natural phenomena.

General Form:
1. Object A has properties f, g, and h and exhibits property P.
2. Object B resembles A in properties f, g, and h.
3. Therefore, likely B has property P as well.
Specific Design Argument:
1. Machines (with intentional arrangements of parts) are products of intelligent design.
2. The universe resembles machines in having an ordered arrangement.
3. Therefore, the universe is likely a product of intelligent design.

Hume's Challenge: Presented in his Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (1799).
- Philosophical Debate:
  - Cleanthes posits the analogy that the universe functions like a machine, implying a designer.
  - Philo counters that the analogy lacks strength due to fundamental dissimilarities between natural processes and human machines.
Philo's Key Arguments:
- Basic principles of logic affirm that as dissimilarity increases, the strength of an analogy weakens.
- While humans can deduce the existence of an architect for a house, the universe's complexity can't be likened to a building in the same assured way.
- Genuine belief in intelligent design cannot arise solely from unsupported conjecture or weak analogies.

Limitations of Human Experience: Humans draw inferences based on experience; thus, inferring universal origins from limited observations is precarious.
Multiplicity of Causes: The inference of a single divine creator is undermined by the possibility of multiple deities collaborating, mirroring human communal efforts in construction.
Limits of Human Reason: Human understanding, particularly through empirical observation, is insufficient for making definitive conclusions about the universe's ultimate cause.

Paley's Argument: In Natural Theology (1802), Paley builds upon Hume’s ideas but argues against Hume’s dismissal by stating undeniable signs of design exist in nature.
- Analogy with a Watch:
  - A watch's intricate mechanism is a clear product of design, supporting the inference of a watchmaker.
- Contrasts with Stones: Unlike a random stone, a watch's parts serve specific functions, implying intentional design.

Darwin's Challenge: Darwin’s On the Origin of Species (1859) offers naturalistic explanations for biological diversity, attributing it to natural selection and random mutations rather than divine design.
Darwin's Reflection: Initially supportive of Paley, Darwin later argues the apparent designs we observe result from natural processes without intentional design.

Introduction: The fine-tuning argument posits that the precise conditions necessary for life suggest deliberate orchestration by a divine creator, contrasting random chance in a universe potentially governed by natural law.
- Key Points:
  - Factors like gravity and nuclear forces need precise calibration to sustain life;
  - If these were different, life as we know it would not exist.
Robin Collins' Version: Claims fine-tuning is not improbable under theism but highly improbable under atheistic views, leading to stronger arguments for the design hypothesis.

The design argument asserts that perceived order in nature suggests a designer.
Despite Hume's critiques and Darwin's evolutionary explanation, the argument continues to evolve with contemporary discussions on fine-tuning and the nature of causation related to the universe's existence.

The relationship between faith and reason varies; while some assert reason supports faith, others (like Tertullian) argue that faith exists independently of rational scrutiny.
Discussions continue in theology regarding the necessity and sufficiency of reason in matters of belief, indicated by contrasting views from figures like John Toland and Blaise Pascal.