Detailed Notes on Modern Indian History

Where, When, and How: The Modern Period in India

Introduction

  • The lesson aims to understand the modern period of Indian history, its timeline, important events, and sources of information.
  • The modern period in India is generally considered to begin with the British conquest in the 18th century and extends until India's independence in 1947.

Features of the Modern Age

  • The modern period, or Modern Age, saw great changes driven by forces like the Renaissance, Mercantilism, the Industrial Revolution, and the American and French Revolutions.
  • These forces originated mainly in Europe but influenced India significantly.
Forces of Change
  • The Renaissance:
    • A movement from the 14th to 17th century, starting in Italy.
    • Emphasized the scientific method of enquiry via questioning, observation, and experimentation.
    • Encouraged independent thinking and questioning of old beliefs and superstitions.
  • Mercantilism:
    • An economic policy from the 1500s to 1700s, where European powers believed wealth accumulation was essential for a country's power.
    • Achieved by exporting more than importing and making profits on produced goods.
    • Mercantilism drove Europe's desire to establish colonies to get raw materials and markets.
  • The Industrial Revolution:
    • An economic revolution starting in Britain around 1750.
    • The domestic system was replaced by the factory system due to mercantilism-driven trade growth.
    • Large machines produced more products quickly and cheaply.
  • The American and French Revolutions:
    • The ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity inspired people worldwide.
    • Inspired rebellions against domination and exploitation, leading to the growth of nationalism and democracy.
Consequences of These Forces of Change
  • Scientific and Technological Progress: New inventions and discoveries revolutionized human life.
  • Discovery of New Lands and Sea Routes: Voyages expanded trade between Europe and the rest of the world.
  • Colonialism: One country politically controlled and governed another for economic gain.
  • Industrialization: The development of industries on a wide scale, with large-scale production in factories.
  • Urbanization: The movement of people from rural areas to cities in search of work due to the decline of traditional ways and the growth of factories.
  • Nationalism: A strong feeling of patriotism, love, pride, and loyalty for one's country.
  • Democracy: A system of government run by representatives of the people.

India in the Modern World

  • After Aurangzeb's death in 1707, the Mughal Empire declined, and new kingdoms like the Maratha and Sikh empires emerged.
  • Mughal governors in Hyderabad, Awadh, Carnatic, and Bengal began ruling independently.
  • European merchants established trading bases and exploited rivalries among Indian rulers to gain more trading rights and territories.
  • The British became the main power in India, and the lesson will cover the impact of 200 years of British rule.
  • The lesson will also explore how Indians fought for their freedom and achieved independence in 1947.

Sources of Information of Modern Indian History

  • Historians use various sources to learn about the past.
  • Modern history has abundant sources of information.
  • Common sources: inscriptions, manuscripts, pottery, coins, paintings and monuments which are available for all three periods of history.
  • Unique sources for the modern period include printed books, newspapers, magazines, government reports, photographs, maps, diaries, and films.
Primary Sources of Information
  • Original sources created at the time of the event by people who witnessed it.
  • Examples: artifacts, coins, monuments, inscriptions, travelogues, autobiographies, government reports, letters, photographs, maps, diaries, newspapers, magazines, and films.
Secondary Sources of Information
  • Second-hand accounts collected and put together by people who study primary sources.
  • Examples: books, biographies, magazines, newspapers, and movies about historical events.
Bias in Sources
  • Both primary and secondary sources must be checked for bias.
  • British accounts of Indian history often differ significantly from Indian accounts.

Detailed Look at Sources

Books, Newspapers, and Magazines
  • The printing press, which was invented in Germany in the 15th century, became common in India in the 18th century, enabling mass printing.
  • Books were printed in English and regional languages.
  • Autobiographies provide detailed information about the times.
  • Books by British authors offer different perspectives on life in India during British rule.
  • Scholarly works by individuals such as Max Mueller provided insights that shaped Western perspectives on India.
Government Documents
  • British officials kept detailed records of all official transactions.
  • A rich collection of official documents, letters, survey maps, and census records exists.
  • These documents are preserved in the National Archives of India and museums in Chennai, Mumbai, and Kolkata.
Photographs and Films
  • The invention of photography in 1839 revolutionized documentation.
  • Photographs taken by British and Indian photographers provide a detailed record of art, architecture, and life in India during that period.
  • Films and documentaries offer insights into British rule in India.

The Formation of European Trading Companies in India

  • European countries realized the potential for wealth in trade with India.
  • Trading companies, supported by their governments, were formed.
  • The Portuguese, Dutch, British, and French established trading stations and battled for control of the lucrative trade.
  • The British and French became the main competitors after the Portuguese and Dutch focused elsewhere.
  • Conflicts in Europe fueled their efforts to gain supremacy in India.

From Traders to Rulers: The British Conquest of India

  • The English East India Company (EEIC) was founded in 1600 to trade with India.
  • Queen Elizabeth I granted the Company the sole right to trade with India.
  • The Company sought to eliminate competition from other European trading companies to establish a monopoly consistent with mercantilist policies.
  • In 1615, King James I sent Sir Thomas Roe to the court of Jahangir to seek a trade agreement.
  • As British trade increased, so did their power; they set up trading posts and fortified settlements.
  • The British aimed to gain political control over India.
Strategies Used by the British
  • The main strategies included warfare, the System of Subsidiary Alliance, and annexations.
Wars
  • Wars were a primary tool for establishing British rule.
  • The British first fought the French to become the dominant European power.
  • Then they targeted Indian rulers and captured their kingdoms through direct warfare.
The Conquest of the Carnatic (The Trade Wars)
  • The conflict between the French and the British focused on the Carnatic region.
  • The French and British allied with rival Indian groups and fought three wars between 1746 and 1763 (the Carnatic Wars).
  • The British defeated the French, becoming the main European power in India.
The Conquest of Bengal
  • Bengal included present-day Bangladesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, and Odisha
  • East India Company has the right to conduct trade in Bengal without having to pay any customs duties.
  • Company officials misused trade permits, causing revenue loss for Bengal's rulers.
  • Sirajuddaulah, the Nawab of Bengal, attacked and occupied Fort William in 1756 because the British started fortifying their factory at Fort William in Calcutta.
The Battle of Plassey (1757)
  • Robert Clive conspired with Mir Jafar, the commander-in-chief of the Nawab's army.
  • Clive promised to make Mir Jafar the Nawab if he helped defeat Sirajuddaulah.
  • Mir Jafar betrayed Sirajuddaulah, leading to a British victory.
  • The battle paved the way for British rule in India.
The Battle of Buxar (1764)
  • Mir Qasim, who replaced Mir Jafar, allied with the Nawab of Awadh and the Mughal emperor Sh Alam II.
  • Their combined forces fought the British at Buxar in 1764 but lost.
  • The emperor granted the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa to the British, giving them the right to collect revenue and administer justice.
System of Dual Governance
  • Mir Jafar was reinstated as the Nawab of Bengal.
  • The Nawab was responsible for administration, but revenue went to the British.
  • This system ruined Bengal and was abolished in 1772 when Warren Hastings became governor.
The Conquest of Mysore: The Anglo-Mysore Wars (1766-1799)
  • Mysore, under Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan, presented strong opposition to the British.
  • Four battles were fought between the British and Mysore.
  • In 1799, Tipu Sultan was defeated and killed in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War.
  • The British annexed part of his kingdom and restored the rest to the royal family.
The Anglo-Maratha Wars (1775-1818)
  • The British sought to subjugate the Marathas.
  • The Marathas had become a powerful force in India by the mid-18th century.
  • The British took advantage of infighting among Maratha chiefs and defeated them in the Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1819).
  • The post of Peshwa was abolished, and large parts of the Maratha kingdom were annexed.
The Conquest of Punjab: The Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845-1849)
  • The Sikhs had established a powerful empire in the 18th century under Maharaja Ranjit Singh.
  • The First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846) resulted in a Sikh defeat and annexation of land by the British.
  • After the Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-1849), Punjab became a dependent state of the British.
The System of Subsidiary Alliances
  • Lord Wellesley used subsidiary alliances to make Britain the most important power in India.
  • Indian rulers had to maintain British troops in their state, either by providing land or paying for their upkeep.
  • The system allowed the British to maintain a large army at the expense of local rulers and control them.
  • Rulers like the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Nawab of Awadh lost independence but gained security.
Annexations
  • Annexation: taking control of a state or territory, usually by force.
  • The British annexed several states based on the Doctrine of Lapse and claims of misrule.
On the Basis of the Doctrine of Lapse
  • The British refused to recognize adopted heirs.
  • States without a natural heir were annexed.
  • Satara (1848), Jaitpur and Sambalpur (1849), Jhansi (1853), and Nagpur (1854) were annexed using this policy.
Under the Pretext of Misrule
  • States were annexed under the guise of protecting Indian rulers.
  • The British stationed troops in those states, increasing taxes, which led to unrest.
  • The British then annexed the state on grounds of misrule.
  • Surat, Carnatic and Awadh were annexed using this policy.
Annexation of Awadh
  • In 1856, the British deposed Wajid Ali Khan and annexed Awadh under the pretext of internal misrule.
  • This act was widely condemned and became a major cause of the Revolt of 1857.

Reasons for the Success of the British

  • Absence of strong central leadership in India: With the decline of the Mughals, there was no central power to check the British.
  • Lack of unity among the Indian states: Indian states were unable to unite against the British, who exploited their rivalries.
  • The compliance of the Indian rulers: Many rulers chose subsidiary alliances over fighting, prioritizing their lifestyles and showing little concern for their people.
  • Britain's superior army and navy: British soldiers had better firearms, training, and discipline.

Conclusion

  • Factors contributed to the British transforming from traders to the builders of the most powerful empire of the 19th century.