ETHNICITY

Ethnicity: An Important Part of Culture & Local Diversity

  • May be suppressed but not changed. Cultural practices, language, and social behaviors persist even under oppression.

  • Often complex due to mixed backgrounds. Many individuals have multi-ethnic backgrounds, making it difficult to ascribe a single ethnic identity.

  • Tied to a particular place. Ethnic identity is often linked to a homeland or region of origin.

  • Identity with shared cultural traditions from a homeland. Common language, religion, customs, and historical experiences.

  • Can refer to small or large groups. From small tribal communities to large diasporic populations.

  • Can be a source of conflict over territory. Competition for resources and land can lead to ethnic tensions.

Key Terms

  • Race: Perceived physiological traits like skin color; not ethnicity. Socially constructed categorization based on physical appearance.

  • Nationality: Legal attachment to a country; political heritage. Formal membership in a state, granting rights and responsibilities.

    • Ethnic groups may be considered nationalities with a history of self-government. Example: Indigenous peoples within a country who maintain distinct cultural and political identities.

Controversy and Definitions

  • Debates on discrimination, minority preferences, and protection of ethnic identities in the U.S.

  • Ethnicity: Cultural heritage vs. Race: Biological heritage. Ethnicity involves shared cultural practices, language, and traditions, while race is often based on perceived physical differences.

  • Race is not clearly tied to location, while ethnicity has a geographic connection. Ethnic groups often have a specific region or homeland associated with their identity.

  • Social construct of race leads to prejudice and segregation. The belief in inherent racial differences has historically led to discrimination and unequal treatment.

  • Racism: Belief in superior/inferior races based on racial differences. The ideology that one race is superior to others, leading to discrimination and oppression.

  • Ethnocentrism: Judging cultures based on one’s own cultural values. Evaluating other cultures based on the standards and values of one's own culture, often leading to misunderstanding and bias.

Classifying Race & Ethnicity in the U.S.

  • Data from census every 10 years. Used for political representation, resource allocation, and understanding demographic trends.

  • Not clearly distinguished; Hispanic Americans are an ethnicity, others are races. Census categories reflect both racial and ethnic classifications.

  • Census classifications change over time. Evolving understanding of race and ethnicity leads to adjustments in census categories.

  • Possible new category: MENA (Middle Eastern & North African). Acknowledging the distinct identity of individuals from the Middle East and North Africa.

Distribution of U.S. Ethnicities

  • 17% Hispanic, 12% African American, 5% Asian American.

  • 2% identify as American Indian, Native Hawaiian, or Alaska Native.

  • Clustered regionally and in cities. Reflects historical migration patterns, economic opportunities, and social networks.

Hispanic Americans

  • Ancestry from Spanish-speaking Latin American countries. Cultural connections through language, customs, and traditions.

  • Clustered in U.S. Southwest & West. Reflects proximity to Latin America and historical migration routes.

Asian Americans

  • Trace ancestry to Asian countries. Diverse group with varied languages, cultures, and historical backgrounds.

  • Clustered in West. Economic opportunities and established communities attract Asian Americans to the West Coast.

African Americans

  • Descended from West Africans forced into slavery. The legacy of slavery continues to shape the experiences and geographic distribution of African Americans.

  • Clustered in Southeast. Historical connection to the plantation economy of the South.

Descendants of Indigenous Peoples

  • Native American, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian. Unique cultures and historical experiences predating European colonization.

  • Clustered in SW, Great Plains, and Alaska. Reflects historical territories and reservation lands.

Ethnically Complex Brazil

  • Diverse, with ancestors from different places. A history of migration and intermarriage has created a complex ethnic landscape.

  • Origins: Portugal, West Africa, other European, and indigenous.

  • Classified by skin color in census. Reflects the social significance of race in Brazil.

Clustering in Brazil

  • Whites in South and Sao Paulo. Historical connections to European immigration and economic development.

  • Indigenous in North (Amazon). Traditional territories of indigenous groups.

  • Blacks in Northeast. Legacy of the slave trade and plantation economy.

  • Mixed in West-Central region. Result of historical migration and intermarriage patterns.

  • Local diversity in Sao Paulo reflects wealth gap. Unequal access to resources and opportunities contributes to ethnic disparities.

Ethnic Enclaves

  • High concentration of an ethnic group in a distinct area. Creates a sense of community and cultural preservation.

  • Distinctive cultural features. Language, food, customs, and religious practices.

  • Result of migration. Immigrants often settle near others from their home country.

Ethnic Enclaves in the U.S.

  • Developed in Midwestern cities in late 1800s/early 1900s. Industrial jobs attracted European immigrants.

  • Many European and some Asian migrants.

  • Creation of ethnoburbs. Suburban ethnic clusters, often more affluent than traditional enclaves.

Ethnic Enclaves in Europe

  • Paris: migrants from former French colonies in Africa. Historical ties and migration patterns.

  • London: born outside U.K; various origins, clustered. A global city with diverse immigrant communities.

Urban Enclaves in the U.S.

  • African Americans & Hispanics clustered in inner-city areas. Historical patterns of segregation and limited housing opportunities.

  • Chicago example.

Why Ethnicities Have Distinctive Distributions

  • Role of international and internal migration. Movement of people shapes the ethnic composition of regions.

  • Asian & Hispanic: voluntary migrants; African: forced migrants. Different motivations and circumstances influence migration patterns.

  • Forced migration of Vietnamese & Cubans (political refugees). Political instability and persecution lead to displacement.

Forced Migration of Slaves from Africa

  • Brought to British American colonies in 1619. Beginning of a long history of racial inequality and injustice.

  • Triangular slave trade: Europe to Africa to Americas. A system of exploitation that fueled the growth of the Americas.

  • Hardships during the Middle Passage; most slaves to the South. Horrific conditions and high mortality rates during the transatlantic voyage.

  • Anti-slavery attitudes led to Civil War and end of slavery. A moral and political struggle that transformed the United States.

Internal Migration of African Americans in 20th Century

  • South to northern cities in 1st half. Seeking economic opportunities and escaping racial discrimination.

  • Inner city to outer city & suburbs in 2nd half.

Interregional Migration of African Americans

  • Attracted north by factory jobs. The promise of a better life in the industrial North.

  • Major routes followed highways.

  • The “Great Migration”. A transformative period in American history.

Intraregional Migration of African Americans

  • Clustered in segregated inner-city neighborhoods. Limited housing options and discriminatory practices.

  • Expansion of “the ghetto”. Concentrated poverty and social isolation.

“White Flight” and Discriminatory Practices

  • Whites leaving neighborhoods due to black (minorities) moving in. Fear of declining property values and changing social dynamics.

  • Blockbusting: Agents exploiting fears for profit. A manipulative and unethical practice that fueled racial segregation.

  • Redlining: Refusal to lend money in certain neighborhoods. A discriminatory practice that limited opportunities for minority communities.

Ethnic & Racial Segregation

Legalized Segregation in the U.S.

  • “Separate but equal” doctrine (“Jim Crow” laws). A system of racial apartheid that denied equal rights and opportunities to African Americans.

  • Restrictive covenants on house deeds. Legal mechanisms to maintain segregation.

  • NOT unique to the South. Existed in various forms across the United States.

U.S. Civil Rights Movement & End of Legalized Segregation

  • Supreme Court case Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka, KS in 1954; segregation violates the 14th amendment. A landmark decision that challenged the legal basis of segregation.

  • Civil Rights movement in 1950s & 60s. A struggle for equality and justice that transformed American society.

Challenges and Continued Disparities

  • Still violence & perceived racism. The legacy of racism continues to affect communities.

  • Neighborhoods still often segregated. Patterns of residential segregation persist.

  • Cities becoming ”majority minority”. Demographic shifts in urban areas.

  • Issues in Flint, MI; higher poverty rates among minorities. Environmental injustice and systemic inequality.

South Africa’s Apartheid

  • Legal separation of races. A brutal system of racial oppression and domination.

  • Defined 4 races.

  • Whites in charge; blacks not allowed to vote. Denial of basic human rights.

  • 10 homelands for blacks. Forced removal and displacement.

  • Apartheid ended in 1991. A triumph of the human spirit over injustice.

Dividing Ethnicities in South Asia

  • British divided into Muslim Pakistan & Hindu India in 1947. A complex historical event with lasting consequences.

  • East Pakistan became Bangladesh in 1971.

  • Long history of Muslim vs. Hindu control. Religious and political tensions.

  • Division led to mass migrations & violence. Displacement and suffering on a massive scale.

  • Kashmir unresolved. A disputed territory with ongoing conflict.

  • Sikhs in Punjab.

Dividing the Kurds

  • Stateless nation. An ethnic group without its own state.

  • Divided among countries. A marginalized and persecuted people.

  • Suppressed in Turkey.

  • Autonomy in Iraq. A degree of self-governance.

  • Allied with U.S. in wars.

Other Examples of Stateless Nations

  • Various groups in Pakistan/India, Russia, China, Canada, etc.

Why Might Ethnicities Face Conflicts?

Ethnicity vs. Nationality (Nation)

  • Nationality (Nation): legal attachment to a country.

  • Ethnicity: shared cultural heritage.

  • Concepts overlap.

  • Examples in U.S. and Canada.

Ethnicity & Nationality in the British Isles

  • Republic of Ireland – Irish nationality

  • United Kingdom – 4 nationalities?

Nationalism

  • Loyalty to a nationality.

  • Centripetal forces.

  • Substate nationalism.

  • Centrifugal forces.

Ethnic Diversity in Western Asia

  • Ethnic & religious diversity.

  • Military intervention; terrorism.

  • Country breakdown.

Ethnic Diversity in West-Central Asia

  • Country breakdown.

Ethnic Diversity in the Caucasus (Mts.)

  • Shatter belt- A regoin where political and cultural conflicts create a complex mosaic of ethnic identities, often leading to tension and instability.

  • Examples in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia.

Ethnicities in Central Asia States

  • (formerly republics of the old Soviet Union)

  • Examples in Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan,

  • Kazakhstan

Why do Ethnic Cleansing and Genocide Occur?

  • Ethnophobia; Xenophobia.

  • Ethnic cleansing: removes a group from a region or country.

  • Genocide: mass killing to eliminate a group.

Past Ethnic Cleansing & Genocide

  • Armenian Genocide; Holocaust of Jews.

Contemporary Ethnic Cleansing & Genocide

  • Myanmar (Rohingya).

Ethnic Cleansing in SE Europe (the Balkan Peninsula)

  • Former Yugoslavia.

  • Ethnic competition sparked WWI.

Ethnic Cleansing in Kosovo

  • Serbia launched campaign against Albanians.

    NATO intervention.

Ethnic Cleansing in Bosnia & Herzegovina

  • Serbs & Croats fought to unite.

  • Limited autonomy since 1996.

Balkanization

  • Balkanized: unstable due to ethnic conflict.

  • Balkanization: state breaking up.

  • The Balkans represent a shatter belt.

Ethnic Cleansing & Genocide in Africa

  • Several thousand ethnicities.

  • Berlin Conference (1884-1885) divided Africa without regard to ethnicities.

Sudan

  • Several civil wars.

  • Conflict in Darfur.

South Sudan

  • Independent in 2011.

  • Dinka & Nuer ethnicities.

  • Abyei region, South Kordofan & Blue Nile regions, Eastern Front.

Ethnic Cleansing & Genocide in Central Africa

  • Rwanda & Burundi: Hutus vs Tutsis.

    Upon independence for Rwanda in 1962, Hutus took power and began to force out Tutsis

    Tutsi rebel army fought back and an agreement was reached in 1993 to share power until the plane of the Burundi & Rwanda Hutu presidents was shot down in 1994; led to Hutu genocide against Tutsis in Rwanda

    Tutsi army won the civil war and took over; Tutsis have ruled Rwanda

BERLIN CONFERENCE (1884-1885): A meeting of European powers that divided Africa into territories for colonization, disregarding ethnic and cultural boundaries, which sowed the seeds for future conflicts and ethnic tensions across the continent.