Psychology 2e - Chapter 8: Memory

MEMORY DISCUSSION

  • Questions to consider if you lost all memory:

    • How would you piece together your identity?

    • Which parts of your identity would be absent due to lack of memory?

    • Identify behaviors that do not require memory.

HOW MEMORY FUNCTIONS

  • Memory as an information processing system (analogous to a computer).

  • Key processes:

    1. Encoding: Input of information into memory.

    2. Storage: Retention of encoded information.

    3. Retrieval: Accessing stored information.

ENCODING

  • Learning new skills requires effortful encoding; once learned, skills can be encoded automatically.

  • Types of processing:

    • Automatic Processing: Unconscious encoding of details (e.g., time, space).

    • Effortful Processing: Requires attention and rehearsal (e.g., studying facts).

TYPES OF ENCODING

  1. Semantic Encoding: Encoding of meanings; most effective method.

  2. Visual Encoding: Encoding images; concrete words are easier to remember.

  3. Acoustic Encoding: Encoding of sounds; related to the self-reference effect.

STORAGE

BADDELEY & HITCH MODEL

  • Proposed model with three short-term systems:

    1. Visuospatial Sketchpad

    2. Episodic Buffer

    3. Phonological Loop

  • A central executive manages information flow.

ATKINSON-SHIFFRIN MODEL

  • Memory storage involves three stages for transfer to long-term memory:

    1. Sensory Memory: Brief storage of sensory events (seconds).

    2. Short-Term Memory (STM): Lasts ~20 seconds; capacity is typically 7±2 items.

    3. Long-Term Memory (LTM): Continuous storage, no limit.

SHORT-TERM MEMORY

  • Short-Term Memory consolidates information via rehearsal to move to long-term memory.

  • Memory Consolidation: Process of transferring STM to LTM.

LONG-TERM MEMORY (LTM)

EXPLICIT MEMORY

  • Consists of declarative memories (facts/events).

    • Semantic Memory: Knowledge of concepts (e.g., facts).

    • Episodic Memory: Memories of personal experiences.

IMPLICIT MEMORY

  • Consists of non-declarative memories (skills).

    • Procedural Memory: Knowledge on how to perform tasks (e.g., riding a bike).

    • Emotional conditioning influences implicit memories.

RETRIEVAL

  • Retrieving information from memory involves:

    1. Recall: Accessing info without cues.

    2. Recognition: Identifying previously learned information.

    3. Relearning: Learning material again for a quicker recall.

PARTS OF THE BRAIN INVOLVED IN MEMORY

  • Key brain regions include:

    • Prefrontal Cortex

    • Cerebellum

    • Amygdala (emotional memories)

    • Hippocampus (explicit memory; crucial for new declarative memory).

NEUROTRANSMITTERS

  • Key neurotransmitters involved in memory:

    • Epinephrine, Dopamine, Serotonin, Glutamate, Acetylcholine.

  • Arousal Theory: Strong emotions enhance memory formation (flashbulb memories).

AMNESIA

  • Types of amnesia:

    • Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories post-trauma.

    • Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of memories before trauma.

MEMORY CONSTRUCTION & RECONSTRUCTION

  • Construction: Forming new memories.

  • Reconstruction: Retrieving and potentially modifying old memories.

  • Suggestibility: External misinformation affecting memory accuracy.

EYEWITNESS MISIDENTIFICATION

  • Leading cause of wrongful convictions; suggestive identification can alter eyewitness memories.

FORGETTING

  • Forgetting can be attributed to encoding failure or decay.

  • Schacter’s 7 Sins of Memory:

    1. Transience: Decay over time.

    2. Absentmindedness: Forgetting due to attention lapse.

    3. Blocking: Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon.

    4. Misattribution: Confused memory sources.

    5. Suggestibility: Creation of false memories.

    6. Bias: Distorted memories due to current beliefs.

    7. Persistence: Inability to forget undesirable memories.

WAYS TO ENHANCE MEMORY

  • Techniques include:

    • Rehearsal: Repetition of information.

    • Chunking: Organizing information into chunks for easier recall.

    • Elaborative rehearsal: Linking new information to existing memories.

    • Mnemonic devices: Memory aids to organize information.

  • Study tips:

    1. Link new information to what you know.

    2. Make it personally meaningful.

    3. Understand the forgetting curve and review.

    4. Minimize distractions while studying.

    5. Maintain physical activity and sufficient sleep for memory consolidation.

  • Mnemonic Examples:

    • Knuckle mnemonic: Days in each month represented by knuckles.