week 9 emotions

Motivation

Definition of Motivation

• Motivation in psychology refers to a set of factors that activate, direct, and maintain behavior toward achieving a goal.
• Examples of goals include:
  • Making the varsity tennis team
  • Losing weight
  • Stopping smoking
  • Graduating from college
• Motivation leads individuals to focus their attention and engage in specific behaviors to achieve these goals.

Theories of Motivation

Biological Theories of Motivation

1. Instinct Theory
   • Suggests fixed, unlearned response patterns are common within a species.
   • Behaviors driven by biology and instincts (e.g., animals engaging in instinctive actions).
2. Optimal Arousal Theory
   • Proposes that organisms are motivated to achieve and maintain an optimal level of arousal.
   • Different people find different levels of arousal optimal; e.g., some enjoy skydiving while others do not.
3. Drive Reduction Theory
   • Suggests motivation begins with a physiological need (a lack or deficiency).
   • This drives behavior to satisfy the need and restore homeostasis (a balanced internal state).
   • Example:
     • Hunger as a physiological need that leads to eating.
   • Homeostasis definition and examples:
     • Shivering when cold increases warmth.
     • Sweating when hot helps cool the body.

Psychological Theories of Motivation

1. Incentive Theory
   • Motivation results from external stimuli leading individuals toward certain behaviors.
   • Example:
     • Attraction to eating a brownie despite not being hungry.
2. Cognitive Theory
   • Motivation is influenced by expectations and attributions regarding actions.
   • Example:
     • Motivation to study for the expectation that it will lead to achievement.

Biopsychosocial Theory

1. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
   • A model combining biological, psychological, and social needs.
   • Levels of needs:
     1. Physiological Needs
     2. Safety and Security
     3. Love and Belonging
     4. Esteem (self-esteem)
     5. Self-Actualization (achieving full potential)

Motivation and Behavior

Eating Motivation

• Eating is a biological necessity, heavily driven by physiological signals.
• Stomach cues (growling, contracting) indicate hunger.
• Biochemistry (hormones and neurotransmitters) also affects hunger.
• The hypothalamus is responsible for controlling appetite.
  • Example: Damage to the hypothalamus can lead to overeating and obesity.
• Eating behaviors are also influenced by psychosocial factors:
  • Cultural perceptions of acceptable food can vary (e.g., guinea pig as a pet vs. food in different cultures).
• Eating disorders:
  1. Anorexia Nervosa
     • Characterized by extreme thinness and reluctance to gain weight.
  2. Bulimia Nervosa
     • Involves binge eating followed by purging (vomiting, excessive exercise).
  3. Binge Eating Disorder
     • Characterized by eating large quantities of food without purging.
• Serious implications of eating disorders, including life-threatening consequences.

Achievement Motivation

Characteristics of High Achievement Motivation

• Preference for moderately difficult tasks (challenging, but not impossible).
• Competitive nature and desire for feedback.
• Good self-regulation and accountability.
• High persistence in overcoming obstacles.
• These individuals tend to be more accomplished.

Sources of Achievement Motivation

• Can derive from parents, teachers, cultural influences.
• Distinction between extrinsic motivation (external rewards) and intrinsic motivation (internal satisfaction).
• Mention of cultural influences like tales (e.g., "The Little Engine That Could") shaping achievement values.

Emotion

Components of Emotion

1. Biological Component
   • Often characterized through arousal (e.g., feeling a pit in the stomach).
2. Cognitive Component
   • Involves thinking and understanding the emotion (e.g., feeling sad after a breakup).
3. Behavioral Manifestations
   • How emotions are expressed (e.g., crying indicates sadness).

Theories of Emotion

1. James Lange Theory
   • Emotions result from recognizing bodily responses.
   • Example: A racing heart leads to the realization of fear.
2. Cannon Bard Theory
   • Emotions and bodily changes occur simultaneously.
   • Example: Experiencing both fear and physiological arousal at the same time.
3. Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory
   • Emotion depends on both physiological arousal and cognitive labeling.
4. Facial Feedback Hypothesis
   • Facial muscle movements can produce or intensify emotional experiences.

The Schachter-Singer Study

• Study design:
  • Participants randomly assigned to one of four groups (informed, ignorant, misinformed, placebo) to test arousal and emotion response to epinephrine before a vision test.
  • Results showed that:
    • Informed group showed no significant happiness as they understood the arousal's cause.
    • Ignorant group interpreted their arousal as happiness due to the confederate’s behavior.
    • Misinformed group experienced the highest level of euphoria because they were not expecting arousal effects.
    • Placebo group exhibited the least euphoria due to lack of physiological arousal.

Evidence Supporting Facial Feedback Hypothesis

• Clever study involving participants holding chopsticks in facial expressions while enduring cold.
• Those holding a smile kept their hand in ice water longer, demonstrating how facial expressions can modify emotional and physical responses.

Happiness

Strategies for Increasing Happiness

1. Express Gratitude
   • Focus on positive aspects of life and list things one is grateful for currently.
2. Change Behavior
   • Ensure sufficient sleep, regular exercise to boost happiness levels.
3. Spend Time and Money Wisely
   • Prioritize experiences over material possessions to enhance happiness.
4. Build Relationships
   • Close relationships with family and friends are significant predictors of happiness.
5. Choose and Pursue Worthy Goals
   • Setting and working towards meaningful goals fosters greater happiness and satisfaction.