Unit 1

Big Idea Questions

  • Why do geographers study the relationships between places?

  • Why do geographers study patterns among places?

  • How do geographers use maps to discover patterns and relationships in the world?

  • How do geographers use a spatial perspective to analyze complex issues and relationships?

Essential Vocabulary

  • The following is critical for proficiency in AP Human Geography:

    • Cartography: The study and practice of making maps.

    • Climate: The long-term patterns of temperature and precipitation in an area.

    • Cultural Ecology: The study of how humans adapt to social and physical environments.

    • Environmental Determinism: A theoretical perspective stating that the physical environment influences human behavior and societal development.

    • Possibilism: The theory that the environment sets certain constraints or limitations, but culture is otherwise determined by social conditions.

    • Distance Decay: A principle stating that the interaction between two locations decreases as the distance between them increases.

    • Distribution: The arrangement of a feature in space.

    • Concentration: The spread of something over a given area.

    • Density: The number of items in a defined area (mass/volume).

    • Geographic Tools: Tools used for geographic analysis include GPS, GIS, Remote Sensing, Maps, Projection, Scale (e.g., Small scale vs Large scale).

    • Space-Time Compression: The reduction in the time it takes for something to reach another place due to advancements in technology.

    • Toponym: The name of a place; can refer to the geographical or historical significance.

    • Absolute Location: Exact positioning on the Earth's surface (latitude and longitude).

    • Relative Location: Location defined by its relation to other locations.

    • Regions: Different categories or groupings defined geographically, including Formal Region, Functional Region (Nodal), and Perceptual Region (Vernacular).

Introduction to Maps

  • Objective: Identify types of maps, information presented, and spatial patterns.

Properties of Distribution

  1. Density: Refers to mass/volume indicating the number of people in a specific area (e.g., NYC, Tokyo as high-density areas).

  2. Concentration: Spatial arrangement can be clustered or dispersed.

  3. Pattern: Types include linear, circular, random.

Types of Maps

  • Reference Maps:

    • Show physical geography of a place, including location, boundaries, and physical features.

  • Thematic Maps:

    • Illustrate how phenomena are distributed (e.g., population density, climate).

Thematic Map Types

Part I:

  • Cartogram:

    • Shape distorted to emphasize a characteristic other than physical geography.

  • Choropleth:

    • Uses shading or color to indicate different values.

Part II:

  • Dot Map:

    • Each dot represents a certain number of occurrences of a phenomenon.

  • Graduated Symbol:

    • Symbol size corresponds to the attribute value (e.g., larger symbol for higher values).

Part III:

  • Isoline Maps:

    • Lines connect points of equal value (e.g., temperature or elevation).

Problems with Maps

  • Distortions:

    • Maps project 3D images onto 2D surfaces, causing distortions.

    • Types of distortions:

    • Shape: Distortion in form (stretched/flattened).

    • Distance: Measurement inaccuracies leading to closer or farther appearances.

    • Relative Size: Misrepresentations of size (e.g., Africa appearing smaller than Greenland).

    • Direction: Misleading directional indicators.

Example of Distortions

  • Shape and Size of Africa:

    • Mercator Projection: Maintains shape but distorts size, making Africa look smaller.

    • Peters Projection: Accurate size but irregularly stretches forms.

    • Real-world Implication: Misrepresentation can lead to underestimating issues faced by African nations.

Major Map Projections

Projection

Advantages

Disadvantages (Distortions)

MERCATOR

Accurate direction; lines of latitude/longitude meet at right angles

Distorted size near poles; distance between latitude lines constant

PETERS

Accurate land mass sizes

Shapes distorted, especially near poles

ROBINSON

General use with no major distortion

Area, shape, and size slightly distorted

Geographic Data

  • Objective: Identify various methods of collecting geographical data.

Geographical Information Sources

  • Methods of Acquisition:

    • Technology, field observations, media reports, official documents, landscape analysis, photographic analysis

    • No single absolute method exists for data acquisition.

Modern Geographical Tools

  • Remote Sensing: The scanning of the Earth using satellites or aircraft.

  • GIS (Geographic Information Systems): Software designed to capture, store, analyze spatial/geographic data.

  • GPS (Global Positioning System): A technology used for determining locations on the Earth.

The Power of Geographic Data

  • Objective: Explain geographical implications of decisions made using geographic information.

  • Geographic data—including census and satellite imagery—is utilized for decision-making across personal, business, and governmental contexts.

Spatial Concepts

  • Objective: Define major geographic concepts exhibiting spatial relationships.

Spatial Patterns on Maps

  • Absolute Location: Specific point described as a grid coordinate (address or latitude/longitude).

  • Relative Location: Defines a place in relation to others (e.g., next to, down the street).

Relationships via Distance

  • Distance Decay: Interaction diminishes as distance increases—observable in phenomena such as contact between ethnic groups.

Space-Time Compression

  • The rapid reduction in time taken to travel or communicate due to improvements in technology (e.g., air travel, internet).

Human-Environmental Interaction

  • Objective: Explain major geographic concepts demonstrating spatial relationships.

Resources 101

  • Water:

    • 70% of Earth’s surface is water; drinkable water constitutes 2.5%, with less than 1% being readily accessible.

    • Most freshwater found in polar regions and aquifers.

  • Fossil Fuels:

    • Oil largely located in the Middle East; coal as primary energy in China contributing to pollution; natural gas extraction methods like fracking are controversial.

    • The US as the largest consumer of fossil fuels.

Theories on Environment's Effect on Societal Development

  • Cultural Ecology: Examines interactions between humans and their environment.

    • Old Theory (Environmental Determinism): Local environment dictates societal development—human agency is limited.

    • Current Theory (Possibilism): Local environment influences societal development but does not determine it—capability of humans to adapt and create.

Scales of Analysis

  • Objective: Define scales of analysis and reveal insights.

Scale

  • Refers to the level of detail rather than map size.

    • Small Scale: Less detail; views expansive areas like a world map.

    • Large Scale: More detail; views localized areas like neighborhood maps.

Examples of Scale Applications

  • Small Scale: U.S. border map.

  • Large Scale: Detailed map of U.S. counties.

Problems with Maps

  • Variations in scale can result in distorted information, misrepresentations.

Example II: Analysis of Scale during the 2016 Presidential Election

  • Small Scale: Suggests a Republican nation based on presidential election outcome.

  • Large Scale: Reveals a more complex political landscape when viewed by county demographics.

Problematic Thematic Mapping

  • Example III: Thematic Map Types during the 2016 Presidential Election

    • Choropleth: Visual shows more Republican counties dominating; may mislead the interpretation of Democrat presence.

    • Cartogram: Illustrates that Republican votes are often from less populous rural areas whereas Democrats primarily reside in populous urban areas—suggesting a more evenly split political landscape.

Regional Analysis

  • Objective: Describe methods used to define regions.

Identifying Locations

  • Place Name (Toponym): Name derived from cultural or geographical features (e.g., Virginia, New Mexico).

  • Site: Physical characteristics including climate, water sources, elevation.

  • Situation: Describes location relative to other locations (another term for relative location).

Types of Regions

  • Formal/Uniform: Defined by standardized characteristics (e.g., countries, agricultural regions).

  • Functional (Nodal): Defined around a central point that diminishes outwardly in influence (e.g., delivery zones).

  • Perceptual (Vernacular): Defined by subjective perceptions and cultural identities without clear boundaries (e.g., regions like "The South").

  • Regions can be transitional and overlap varying from local to global scales.