Outline -WEEK 12

I. Academic English – Modal Verbs

1. Introduction to Modal Verbs

Modal verbs (also called modal auxiliary verbs, modals, or secondary auxiliaries) express modality.

Modality:

⚠ Modality is not the same as grammatical mood.

2. Core Characteristics of English Modals

Central modals:

• can express multiple meanings (basic & extended)

• are defective (grammatically incomplete)

• generally cannot co‑occur in the same verb phrase

• resemble Dutch modals in some ways but differ in others

• show semantic change over time

3. Defective Nature of Modals & Compensatory Forms

Because modals lack:

• infinitive forms

• participles

• tense inflections

English uses fixed compensatory (suppletive) constructions:

Rules:

• No to‑infinitive after modals

• No ‑ing or ‑ed forms

• No modal stacking

4. Meanings Expressed by Modal Verbs

Modal verbs cover a wide semantic range:

• Ability

• Possibility

• Probability

• Certainty

• Impossibility

• Permission

• Obligation

• Necessity

• Prohibition

• Deduction

• Speculation

Context determines interpretation.

5. Ability

Present & Future

• can → general ability / informal

• be able to → neutral / formal / future‑oriented

Examples:

• She can talk extremely fast.

• Next week, we will be able to see her.

Past Ability

Key distinction:

• could → general past ability

• was/were able to → successful completion of a specific action

✔ He was able to pass his driving test.
✖ He could pass his driving test.

Negative:

• could not / was not able to

6. Possibility, Deduction & Speculation

Present

• can, could, may, might

Strength (rough scale):

• might < could < may < must (deduction)

Examples:

• She may be wrong.

• She cannot be hungry. (impossibility)

Future

• could / may / might → uncertainty

• will be able to → ability, not possibility

7. Permission

Present & Future

• can → informal

• could → polite

• may → formal / correct

• might → very formal / tentative

Responses:

• Yes, you may / can

• No, you may not / cannot

Past

• could → general permission

• was allowed to → specific occasion

✔ I was allowed to watch television yesterday.
✖ I could watch television yesterday.

8. Obligation & Necessity

Strong Obligation

• must → speaker‑imposed / strong

• have (got) to → external obligation

• need to → practical necessity

Time distinctions:

• must → present/future only

• have to → all tenses

Formal / Legal Alternatives

• be to

• be obliged to

• be obligated to

• be required to

9. Recommendation & Advice

• should → neutral advice

• ought to → moral / evaluative

• must → strong recommendation

Used in present and future contexts.

10. Deduction

High certainty conclusions based on evidence:

• must

• have got to

• should (weaker)

Examples:

• She must be on the plane now.

11. Frequent Mistakes

Key contrasts:

• may not ≠ can’t

• mustn’t (prohibition) ≠ needn’t (lack of obligation)

• may (possibility) ≠ could (interrogative use)

Legal English note:

• shall used for obligation in formal legal drafting

II. Legal English – Criminal Law

1. Core Concepts & Vocabulary

Criminal law concerns:

• offences against the state

• prosecution by the state

• punishment rather than compensation

Key actors:

• defendant, prosecutor, witnesses, jury, judge

2. Criminal Procedure

Stages include:

• arrest

• charge / indictment

• arraignment

• trial

• cross‑examination

• verdict

• sentencing

• appeal (upheld / overturned)

3. Crimes and Actions (Collocations)

Important verb‑noun pairings:

• commit a crime

• bring / file charges

• pass / propose legislation

• award damages

• uphold / overturn a conviction

• apply for bail

• reach a verdict

4. Sentences & Punishment

Sentencing spectrum:

• death sentence / capital punishment

• custodial sentences

• community sentences

• fines

• discharge

Key distinctions:

• maximum vs minimum sentence

• aggravating vs mitigating factors

5. Crime and Punishment Vocabulary

Processes and outcomes:

• convicted / acquitted

• remanded / incarcerated

• probation / parole

• pardon / commutation / remission

Roles:

• accomplice

• witness

• objector

6. Joint Enterprise

Definition:

Key issue:

• guilty by association

• controversial expansion of criminal liability

III. US Society – USA Today II

1. Setting the Stage

Post‑Trump challenges are structural, not personal.

Politics increasingly occurs through:

• courts

• administrative law

• regulation

2. The Judicial Turn

• Supreme Court central to policymaking

• Courts limit agencies

• Courts expand presidential power

Effect:

• fragmented national policy

• regional legal divergence

3. Social Resets: Abortion & Civil Rights

• Roe v. Wade overturned (2022)

• State‑level abortion regimes

• Trigger bans vs shield laws

Civil rights:

• Affirmative action ended (SFFA v Harvard)

• LGBTQ+ protections diverge

4. Guns & Constitutional Interpretation

• “History and tradition” test

• Modern gun laws lack historical analogues

• Courts, not Congress, set limits

Gun deaths (2023): 46,728

5. Democracy & Digital Platforms

Key issues:

• election law changes

• voter access disputes

• disinformation

• platform regulation

• AI & deepfakes

Administrative law weakened via reduced deference.

6. Housing & Affordability

Problems:

• national housing shortage

• zoning restrictions

• high interest rates

Climate links:

• insurance withdrawal

• rising premiums

7. Climate & Energy

• clean‑energy tax credits

• private capital dependence

• grid & permitting bottlenecks

Justice concerns slow implementation.

8. Industrial Policy & Workforce

Return of state‑led industrial strategy:

• semiconductors

• EVs

• clean manufacturing

Constraints:

• labour shortages

• grid capacity

• permits

9. Immigration & Demography

• outdated visa caps

• asylum system mismatch

• federal gridlock

• local burden‑sharing