Introduction to History
Westminster | Dr. Vigil
Study Guide for Test
The test will consist of multiple-choice questions and free response questions.
Writing and Civilization
Why did states first develop in grain-growing areas?
Because grain produced a large harvest that was visible, ripened all at once, and was storable, making it easy for officials sent by those in charge of tax.
What was the primary function of writing when it was first developed?
The primary function of writing when it was first developed was mainly record keeping. Early writing systems like cuneiform was used to keep track of trade, agriculture, people and goods. Rather than to record speech and convey ideas.
Why do some historians now reject the use of the word "civilization"? In your opinion, is this a good concept to use when studying various societies, or should we reject this concept?
Some historians chose to not use the word civilization because it could imply superiority to other societies.
In my opinion this word can be helpful in some contexts but should be avoided when using it label societies.
Some societies might not fit into the Dictionary definition of a civilization because they has less developed writing systems or governments. But they could still excel in other categories like culture.
Lecture and Reading on Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia–meaning and location
It means "land between rivers" in Greek
region located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers
The City-States of Sumer
12 independent city-states by 3000 BCE
20,000+ residents in each city-state
Massive hydraulic projects (reservoirs, dams, and dikes) irrigated the arid climate
Often surrounded by walls that kept out intruders
Religion in Sumer
Temple complexes built on tall platforms dominated the center of the cities (ziggurats)
Sumerians believed that many different gods and goddesses controlled the world (polytheism)
Priests played a central role in Sumerian society
In addition to being religious leaders, priests managed the irrigation systems
Sumerian Politics
Over time kings began to rule over the Sumerian city-states
Kings most likely started out as temporary leaders during times of crisis
Temporary power gradually became permanent kingship, and kings began handing down the kingship to their sons, establishing patriarchal hereditary dynasties
Sumerian Writing
CUNEIFORM
Writing developed as a way for elites to keep track of people and goods
Earliest writing was all lists
Writing began as pictographs and evolved to become ideograms.
Article about Hammurabi’s Code
What is the purpose of the code of Hammurabi?
Laws for Babylonian society
Tool to unify expanding empire
“That the strong might not injure the weak.”
Allowed everyone to know the rules
How is the code reflective of social class structures? How does it promote both equality and inequality?
Equality- Everyone has to follow the same set of rules
Inequality- Some punishments for people of higher rank were less severe than people of lower rank
What are some limitations of Hammurabi’s code as evidence of life in Babylonia?
We don't know if everyone actually followed the rules
Documentary: Engineering an Empire
You should be able to answer all of the questions on the packet for this documentary.
Youtube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9cdUxZuarL0
Menes 3000 BC
Why could the Nile be considered a blessing and a great danger?
The Nile was a blessing because its annual floods brought water that helped crops grow, making a good harvest and food for the people.
danger-
if the flood didn’t come, there would be famine and hunger across the land
Cannibalism and chaos
when the water was too strong it could destroy everything in its path
What massive project was completed under his reign?
He completed a massive dam to stop the city from overflowing
List the various uses of the Nile?
only place in the sahara desert that has a steady supply of water
Farmers settle on bank
Humans would survive it it wasn't for the nile
Reason why the world's first empire started there
Egyptians used the river for transportation
Djoser 2662 BC
Who was Djoser’s architect?
Imhopet was the chief architect, treasurer, and the priest
wanted to build the biggest pyramid
Why was Djoser’s temple revolutionary?
He built the temple using stone rather than mud
What kind of food and accommodations did workers receive in exchange for their labor?
Food, beer, clothing, and tax breaks.
women were drafted to keep the men fed and clothed
10,000 workmen
Snefru
2613-2589 BC
Provide information about the following projects
Meydum- It was one of Snefru's early pyramid projects.
Initially started as a step pyramid but was changed to have smooth sides made of limestone
It collapsed due to the smooth surface
marks a big stage in the development of pyramid construction.
Dashur-
Build by Snefru
The Bent Pyramid has an angle change halfway up
wasn't completely successful as a true pyramid.
Red Pyramid-
largest pyramid there.
It is the first pyramid to be fully completed with smooth sides.
Its designs were used for future pyramids
slope
How were the large stone slabs transported?
Large stone slabs transported using sleds.
These sleds were pulled across the ground
lubricated with water to reduce friction.
The stones were also moved up ramps to transport them to higher levels of the pyramid.
Sesostris III
1864 BC
What were Sesostris’ three objectives?
Secure Egypt's southern border.
Control trade routes in Nubia.
Stealo Nubian gold.
What were the Nubians renowned for?
Expert archers.
They were known as "pupil shooters,"
What occurred in the Middle Kingdom that disrupted the stability of Egypt?
The Middle Kingdom weakened.
Hatshepsut
1473-1458 BC
How was Hatshepsut able to rule Egypt?
after Thutmose II’s death.
Thutmose III was a child, so she took control.
Declared herself Pharaoh to secure her power.
Why did she build obelisks all around Egypt?
To showcase her power and legacy.
To honor the sun god Ra.
Who was her lover and architect?
Senenmut.
lover and architect
He helped design her temple.
What happened to her statues and obelisks after she died, and why?
Statues and obelisks were destroyed.
Thutmose erased her to strengthen his rule.
Amenhotep IV
1352-1336
What did Amenhotep IV change his name to?
Akhenaten meaning “Severant of Aten”
What breakthrough was achieved under his reign?
Akhenaten introduced the use of small limestone blocks called "talatat," allowing faster building.
What was his downfall?
Akhenaten's focus on religion led to neglect of Egypt’s empire and weakened his rule.
What happened after he died?
After his death, Akhenaten was largely rejected, and his city was abandoned.
Who was the next Pharaoh?
The next Pharaoh was his son, Tutankhaten
9 years old
Made many adjustments to his fathers former reign
Seti I
1294-1279 BC
How did Set I re-establish order in Egypt?
Conquest and construction was his strategy
Commishied the legendary hypostyle hall
one of the wonders of ancient architecture
Restored Egypt’s military power and launched strikes into Syria and palestine
Why is Seti I tomb unique?
Very elaborate with depictions of gods (Ra) with a complex layout to protect against water and tomb robbers
Many different material used and inscriptions
Ramses II
1279-1212 BC
What did Ramses II excel at?
excelled in not only love but in war
Who did Ramses II attack?
He attacked the Hittite Kingdom in Syria with 20000 men
largest known force
What happened to Egypt after Ramses II died?
Egypt's power began to decline.
The Nile River (location, features)
The Nile River is traditionally considered the longest river in the world, with a length of over 4,000 miles, and made civilization possible in Egypt and Nubia.
The Nile River is made up of two tributaries (small rivers that flow into a larger river) that met in Nubia, which is in the modern-day country of Sudan.
The Nile starts in the south near the modern-day city of Khartoum, Sudan. It flows to the north where it ends at the Mediterranean Sea.
The northern boundary of the Nile was at the river delta, where the Nile separated into several smaller branches and emptied into the Mediterranean Sea.
Delta: fan-shaped region created when soil is deposited at the end of a river
The Nile carried silt from the beginning of the river and dropped it at the delta where the water flow slowed down.
Many Egyptians settled around the Nile Delta since the buildup of soil made the land great for agriculture.
Why did Egyptians live along the Nile River?
Ancient Egypt was covered by desert and received little rainfall, so the Nile was the primary water source in the region.
The Egyptians called their land Kemet, or the “Black Land,” due to the dark color of the fertile soil along the Nile.
The Nile flooded over its banks around the same time during summer and fall each year, so farmers could confidently plan their growing and harvesting seasons around this time.
The Egyptians used irrigation to grow a surplus of food, just like the civilizations in Mesopotamia
The Nile River was located nearby several natural barriers.
A natural barrier is any physical feature, such as a desert or mountain, that makes travel more difficult within or between civilizations.
Natural barriers protected the Egyptians and made it harder for rival civilizations to invade their lands.
Regions of Egypt
Egypt was originally divided into two regions called Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt, which each had their own separate kingdoms.
Upper Egypt: southern part of Egypt
Lower Egypt: northern part of Egypt
Southern Egypt was referred to as the “upper” half because the Nile River started there, while northern Egypt was known as the “lower” half since the Nile ended there.
Leaders of Egyptian Religion-Pharaohs and Priests
The pharaoh and priests had a responsibility to observe the law of ma’at in order to please the gods and make life better across Egypt.
Example: The pharaoh could be accused of failing to maintain ma’at if the crops did not grow or if they could not defend Egypt from invading armies.
Major Religions Beliefs
The Egyptians believed in a concept called ma’at, which was the idea of a cosmic harmony and balance that existed on Earth and across the universe. (Ma’at was also represented as one of the Egyptian gods.)
All people were expected to observe ma’at through good behavior and honoring their pharaoh and gods. Those who did would be rewarded with a peaceful afterlife.
Afterlife: life after death
Mummification
The mummification process looked different based on the wealth and social status of the deceased person.
The expensive procedure included several steps such as removing the body’s organs, drying it out with salt, wrapping it, and burying it in a coffin called a sarcophagus.
A more affordable option involved burying the body in a sand pit to dry out naturally in the desert.
Purpose of pyramids
Pyramids were the burial sites for many pharaohs, along with all of their possessions that would help them live comfortably in the afterlife, including gold and jewelry.
Hieroglyphics
The Egyptians created one of the first writing systems in the world called hieroglyphics, which used symbols to communicate sounds, words, and ideas.
Hieroglyphics were invented between 3200 BCE-3000 BCE, around the same time as cuneiform in Mesopotamia.
Hieroglyphics were mostly used for formal writing, such as engravings on temples, tombs, and monuments.
Theocracy
The pharaoh was viewed as both a ruler and a god, which also made Egypt’s government a theocracy.
Theocracy: system of government ruled by religious leaders
The theocracy allowed pharaohs to use religion and their status as a god to justify their decisions to the people.
The Old Kingdom
The Egyptians built numerous pyramids for their pharaohs during this time, including the iconic Pyramids of Giza.
The largest pyramid at Giza, also known as the Great Pyramid, belonged to a pharaoh named Khufu, who is one of the most famous pharaohs from the Old Kingdom.
The Old Kingdom ended because many regional governors turned against the pharaohs, while a series of low floods from the Nile River caused mass starvation among the people.
The Middle Kingdom
A pharaoh named Mentuhotep II reunified Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt after civil war during the First Intermediate Period.
Egypt created its first permanent, full-time army during this time. They would later use it to conquer Kush and gain access to its gold and resources.
There were new building projects, including more affordable pyramids and the start of temple construction at Karnak.
Some pharaohs began a policy called co-regency, where they would choose a successor and govern together to ensure a smooth transition of power.
The Middle Kingdom ended after a group called the Hyksos invaded from Southwest Asia. They introduced technology that was previously unknown to the Egyptians, including chariots and bronze weapons.
The New Kingdom
The Egyptians pushed the Hyksos out of Egypt. Their fear of future invasions motivated them to expand their borders and become an empire.
The Egyptians moved into Southwest Asia and conquered the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, including the Phoenicians. They also moved south into Nubia and conquered Kush.
Many of Egypt’s famous pharaohs ruled during this time.
The New Kingdom ended after the priests in Egypt’s former capital of Thebes had gradually accumulated more wealth and power than the pharaohs, and eventually gained political control of Upper Egypt.
Hatshepsut
Hatshepsut was one of a few female pharaohs in Egyptian history, who authorized several building projects and greatly increased Egypt’s wealth through trade with other civilizations.
Akhenaten
Akhenaten outlawed Egypt’s traditional polytheistic religion and replaced it with the worship of his favorite god called Aten. It may have been intended to hurt the priests of the god Amun, whose power had grown to rival the pharaoh.
Social Hierarchy in Ancient Egypt
The pharaoh was usually at the top of the social hierarchy since they were both a monarch and a god.
It was not possible for the pharaoh to be everywhere at once, so they would need the help of others to run the government.
Vizier: second-in-command whose responsibilities included supervising the courts, tax collections, pyramid construction, and government officials
Priests: caretakers of the temples who at times competed with the pharaoh for religious authority
Nomarchs: local governors who controlled individual regions throughout Egypt and at times competed with the pharaoh for political power
The individuals who filled these positions were usually nobles, who were people that came from wealthy families.
Scribes kept written records for the government and temples, while also creating stories and other literature.
Scribes enjoyed a higher social status because only a small amount of Egypt’s population learned writing.
Doctors were usually former scribes because they needed to read medical texts for treating patients.
There were several types of artisans in Ancient Egypt, such as builders, carpenters, jewelers, metalworkers, painters, sculptors, and stonecutters.
Some people were merchants, or traders who exchanged the artisans’ goods for items from other civilizations.
Farmers made up the majority of Egypt’s population and were often laborers on building projects during the flood season or soldiers in the army during wartime.
Enslaved people were usually prisoners of war from other civilizations, or individuals who were in debt.
Roles of Women and Children
There was gender inequality between men and women in Egypt, as in most ancient civilizations, where women were mainly expected to take care of their homes and families.
Some women did work as artisans, doctors, scribes, priests, and government officials.
Women had more legal rights in Egypt than most other civilizations at the time. These included owning property, making contracts, and divorcing their husbands.
Children played with toys and learned sports such as swimming. Sons were expected to do the same job as their fathers when they became adults.