Middle ages lecture notes
MIDDLE AGES: POST CAROLINGIAN EUROPE
Feudalism: The word comes from various terms feod/fief/benefice/honor and it develops as a system during the Carolingian reign. With the breakup into smaller territories after the death of Charlemagne, there are more kings competing for loyal subjects. The kings give lands to knights and lords to reward their service and loyalty. The knights and lords rule these smaller territories for the king in exchange for military support. Eventually these territories are passed down by hereditary succession. Feudalism leads to less centralized control of a kingdom.
Feudalism: Form of government by which political authority was exercised by the landed nobility. Feudalism dominated most of Europe as the land system. Lords and nobility shared power with kings in a symbiotic relationship. The kings needed the financial, land, and military support of the nobles in order to remain king; the nobles needed the kings to grant them title to lands. Although kings were higher in the hierarchy, they could not rule without the nobles.
MIDDLE AGES SOCIETY: Hierarchy of the feudal system = Kings are at the top. Tenants-in-chief are under kings and control manors, but they may control more than one and thus may not always be present. Knights/lords run the manors on a day-to-day basis. Although titles (such as count, baron, duke, etc.) were important, what was more important is the actual ownership of the land. More land equaled more power, regardless of the title the landowner held.
Knights = heavy cavalry; preferred military units in feudal Europe.
Peasants are not slaves, but they are required to work the land and remain tied to the land even if the lord of the land changes.
Manorialism: Agricultural organization of Europe's landed estates, called manors, which became the major economic and social institution of the Middle Ages. Primary economic system of the Middle Ages.
FEUDAL CONTRACT: Vassal gave a pledge of loyalty and an act of homage in a very formalized ceremony. Ceremony was called investiture and vassal was given land to govern and use but not own. Symbolic object, usually a piece of sod, was given during ceremony.
FIEF: A piece of land granted by the king or lord, to somebody in return for service. A fief could be awarded for a variety of reasons to a variety of people. The person who gives the land is called the lord.
VASSAL: Person who received the grant of land. IT WAS POSSIBLE TO BE BOTH A LORD AND A VASSAL!
OBLIGATIONS OF THE FUEDAL CONTRACT:
1. The lord was obligated to protect his vassals.
2. Vassals were obligated to protect the lord and his family and give him advice.
LAW OF PRIMOGENITURE: The feudal contract is passed on to oldest son.
3 FIELD SYSTEM: Two-field system/Three-field system = Advances in agriculture. In the two field system, half of the land is used for part of the year, while the other half is fallow (unplanted) and recovering. In the second part of the year, the fields are reversed. The same principle is used in the three-field system, only the land is divided into thirds and crops are rotated. This system allows more food to grow, increasing the population.
Chief function of manor: produce food!
2 TYPES OF PEASANTS: 2 types of peasants lived on the manor:
1. freemen: minority group under complete control of the lord but with certain limited rights.
2. serfs: majority group who were bound to the land and could not be evicted.
CASTLES: Early castles made of earth and wood, eventually giving way to more elaborate stone versions. Castles are fortified residences, typically for kings, other royalty, or the lords who rule territory on behalf of the kings. Castles are often situated in military advantageous places, such as on hills or near river crossings. Not all castles are spectacular places, some are merely fortified manor houses such as this one. The need for castles comes from the threats of potential invaders such as the Moors or the Vikings, but also from rival kings.
REBIRTH OF TRADE: The Crusades increase the connections between cultures. In Europe, results of these connections include increased demand for trade for luxury goods with the Middle East, changes in customs (hand washing, for example), changes in fashion, and new trends in education.
Burghers = townspeople. “Burgh” is a Saxon word meaning “fortified settlement” and those who live in Burghs are Burghers. Townspeople were subject to more liberties than agrarian people, but townspeople are still the minority of the population.
Recovering from the European Dark ages, cities of the 12th century are no longer just fortresses or residences for bishops. Cities now present opportunities for trade and are generally outside of the control of feudal lords.
Guilds: Guilds are medieval trade associations (somewhat similar to today’s unions). The craftsmen of a particular trade (like tanners or blacksmiths, for example) band together in guilds to protect their interests against outsiders and competitors.
Fairs: Fairs of this time were specially designated occasions for trade in goods not otherwise easily acquired (such as imported goods). The most famous fair of this period occurred in Champagne, France.
Banking is an example of a new service that emerges, specifically the practice of lending money in return for interest (as in a loan). The Church considered this practice “usury” – a sin. Jewish bankers did not have the religious prohibition against usury, thus dominated banking in this era. During the time of the Crusades, banking and loans became common.
EDUCATION: Scholasticism = Combination of logic/science and religion.
St Thomas Aquinas is an example of the scholasticism movement. Aquinas writes Summa Theologica (“Summation of Theology”), an attempt to prove the existence of God using logic and theology.
European universities at this time were for men only. Students paid teachers directly, with teachers charging by the lecture. In some instances, women received private educations at home from tutors (usually people who also taught at universities).
HELOISE & ABELARD: One example of home tutoring gone awry is Abelard (teacher) and Heloise (student). Abelard is a University of Paris teacher with aspirations in the clergy. However, he engages in an affair with his student, Heloise, who ends up pregnant.
HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE:
OTTO THE GREAT: Otto I the Great (936-973) = German king who became the first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Otto raised a great military, defeated invading Magyars, then invaded Italy. As a conqueror of Italy, Otto fused the German and Italian territories together as the Holy Roman Empire and was crowned by the Pope.
OTTO III: Otto III (983-1002) = German king who was able to spread the primacy of the Holy Roman Empire. Spread German influence and Christianity to places such as Poland, Bohemia, Hungary, by making local leader’s vassals under the dominion of Otto III and future Germany kings.
HENRY IV: Henry IV (1056-1105) =: Became king as a child and the nobility took advantage of his youth, seizing more power. Henry was kidnapped as a child, by a powerful church official and almost drowned trying to escape! As an adult, Henry IV wanted to regain power for the kingship. Henry IV used his influence on the Church as a weapon against his opponents (the lords and nobility), turning bishops and clergy against them. Pope Gregory VII, however, reinforced the Cluny reforms by excommunicating Henry IV for interfering in Church affairs. This led to the famous “penance of Canossa”, when Henry IV stood outside the Pope’s palace for 3 days in the snow! In turn, German bishops controlled by Henry IV declare the Pope illegitimate. This split signals the beginning of ongoing civil wars and conflicts that undermine the power of the German monarchy.
CONCORDAT OF WORMS: Concordat of Worms (1122): An agreement that Church clergy will elect bishops freely, but in the physical view of the emperor. Bishops will receive the symbolic possessions of their office (hats, robes, staffs, etc.) from other Church officials; Bishops
receive feudal (land) possession directly from the emperor. In this way, the powers and rewards of becoming bishop are kept in separate spheres (a separation of church and state).
CONFLICT BETWEEN CHURCH AND STATE:
LAY INVESTITURE: During this time, the clergy is turning into feudal nobility as well. Clergy are rewarded for their cooperation with kings; in exchange, kings appoint some bishops (rather than bishops being appointed by other clergy).
The Cluny reforms (910 to 1090)(originating from Cluny, a religious monastery). The reforms oppose secular or government influence on the church, such as kings appointing church officials. The reforms are initially supported by Emp. Henry III and Pope Leo IX (ironically, a pope appointed by the king – the kind of action the reforms were against).
Great Schism (1054): A “schism” or disagreement develops in the Church. Some clergy challenge the authority of the Pope over the Cluny reforms. Some kings want to continue appointing Church officials. The impact of the Great Schism was the final split between the Orthodox Church in the east and the Roman Catholic Church in the west.
RISE OF THE ENGLISH MONARCHY. SEE BELOW.
THE NORMANS:
WILLIAM THE CONQUERER: William (French) conquered England and brings new institutional developments. He imports French feudalism to England. The English form of feudalism is slightly different in that feudal lords could not gain the same kind of power; only collectively could feudal lords challenge the king’s authority.
Domesday Book = William orders a census of each county under his control so that he knew how much he could tax his subjects. The census recorded the holdings and possessions of each person in the Domesday Book. William died before completion, but the project indicates a shift towards more direct control of his subjects by the king.
HENRY I: Additional institutional ideas emerge from Henry I, who created the position of exchequer, an office that kept track of every piece of revenue in the royal coffers. Europe now has accountants!
PLANTAGENET DYNASTY: Starts with Henry II. The Plantagenet dynasty ruled England for over three hundred years, from 1154 -1485. They were a remarkable family, providing England with fourteen of its kings. The surname Plantagenet, which was to become one of the most famous in England, seems to have derived from a nickname adopted by Geoffrey, Count of Anjou, the father of Henry II and refers to his habit of wearing a sprig of broom or planta genista in his helmet.
HENRY II: Henry II, the grandson of Henry I, first instituted the idea of common law. In France, feudal lords handed out justice. But in England starting with Henry II, only special royally appointed persons could do this. In theory, common law is applied equally throughout the kingdom. Henry II is considered one of England’s greatest kings due to his contribution of JUDICIAL REFORMS.
1. EXTENDED AUTHORITY OF ROYAL COURTS.
2. COMMON LAW CREATED.
3. USE OF 12 MEN JURIES.
Henry II also married Eleanor of Aquitaine, a rich French heiress, a move that transferred significant land possessions to Henry II and England. Henry II’s territory now included Scotland, England, and significant portions of France.
Thomas Becket Scandal: Thomas Becket: King Henry II appointed his close friend Thomas Becket as Archbishop of Canterbury (the highest religious office in England) in hopes that the king could control the Church. Once in office, however, Becket proved a supporter of Church authority. Several of Henry II’s supporters murdered Becket in Canterbury Cathedral, causing Henry II great embarrassment, a formal public apology, and ending any chance Henry had of ever influencing Church affairs. The Pope made Becket a saint.
KING JOHN: John I (LACKLAND, SOFTSWORD) The younger brother of Richard the Lionheart, is considered the worst king in English history.
He was defeated in his 3 major conflicts:
1. War with France: WAR WITH KING PHILIP OF FRANCE. BY 1214, HAD LOST MOST OF ENGLANDS LAND IN FRANCE.
2. Conflict with the Pope: A. DISPUTED ELECTION OF NEW ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY.
B. POPE INNOCENT III AUTHORZED PHILIP TO INVADE ENGLAND AND DESPOSE JOHN.
C. JOHN GIVES IN AND RECOGNIZES ENGLAND AND IRELAND AS FIEFS TO THE POPE.
3. Magna Carta: John was forced to sign by the English Barons. (1215). It created 3 aspects of English law:
1. Taxation by consent. 2. Fair trial. 3. Representative government.
MAGNA CARTA: The Magna Carta represents additional institutional changes. English King John wanted to protect his subjects from the rule of feudal lords, but the lords opposed King John’s power. The lords banded together to force King John to sign the Magna Carta, a document limiting the king’s authority and ability to tax), and granting special rights to the lords. Many basic rights recognized by today’s governments originate in the Magna Carta, including the right to a jury by your peers if accused of a crime. These rights were originally only for the
lords/nobility, not commoners – many years later these rights trickle down to common people. King John had no intention of honoring the Magna Carta and had it declared void by the Pope!
EDWARD I: The English King Edward I (known as Edward Longshanks) tried to tax the Church in order to fund an invasion of Scotland, an idea that got him excommunicated. In response, Edward I gathered influential clergy, nobles, and townspeople and began the Parliament, an attempt to gain public favor for his tax requests. The original Parliament served as a body to approve or disapprove royal requests for taxes.
FRANCE. SEE BELOW.
Capetians: Hugh Capet (r. 987 to 996) was originally a feudal lord in France with large land holdings. In order to become recognized as king, he gave much of his lands to other lords in order to gain recognition as king. In surrendering his lands for the kingship, he also surrendered much of his personal power. Hugh Capet’s story shows the problems in the hierarchy system; the kings need the lords and the lords need the kings. Hugh Capet crossed up the nobility by immediately naming his son as co-ruler, making the crown hereditary based on primogeniture.
PHILIP II AUGUSTUS (1180 – 1223): France rebounds in power under Philip II Augustus. When the English King John fought his own nephew for control of England, Philip II Augustus supported the nephew (Arthur). When John killed Arthur, Phillip and John went to war. Phillip II wins the war, regaining much French territory formerly governed by England.
BATTLE OF BOUVINES: The Battle of Bouvines, fought on 27 July 1214, was one of the most influential battles in European history, directing the fate of the kingdom of France, the Holy Roman Empire and the Angevin dominions. In England, it was to lead to Magna Carta. Since 1204, when Philip Augustus had won Normandy from King John, the English king had worked relentlessly to raise the funds needed to reverse his losses. His demands pushed his subjects to the brink of rebellion. Defeat at Bouvines sealed King Philip’s hold on Normandy and feulled opposition to John’s rule in England. In Sir James Holt’s words, ‘the road from Bouvines to Runnymede was direct, short, and unavoidable.’
PHILIP II ACCOMPLISHMENTS: Began general expansion of French royal authority. Created baillies which were the French equivalent of the English position of sheriff, an office that helped administer local territories of the kingdom. Began the building of the Louvre and founded the University of Paris in 1200. He was also responsible for the ALBIGENSIAN CRUSADE. The Albigensians (also called Cathars) lived in the French region of Toulouse where they practiced a heretical form of Christianity (one that did not meet with official Church orthodoxy). Pope Innocent III and King Philip II Augustus target the Albigensians/Cathars for persecution, putting the Dominicans (a Catholic religious order) in charge of spreading the correct Church teachings and weeding out heresy. The campaign against the Albigensians/Cathars is the precursor to a larger persecution of heretics, “The Inquisition.”
LOUIS IX “ST. LOUIS”: Considered most chivalrous monarch of his age, he gained fame for judicial reform to secure justice for rich and poor. He was the 1
st French king to issue laws for the whole country based solely on his authority. He died while on the 8th Crusade of dysentery.
PHILIP IV ”THE FAIR”: In France, Philip IV did relatively the same thing as Edward I did in forming the Parliament – Philip formed the Estates General to gather support for his policies. Philip needed money to fight a war, so he called Estates General seeking national support in a struggle against the church over taxation of the clergy. It was the first time the Estates General had been called.
Estates General = France’s representative body made up of the 3 social classes:
1st Estate = Nobility
2nd Estate = clergy
3rd Estate = peasants/ commoners
Philip suffered from financial issues throughout his reign. He established 2 solutions for his financial problems:
1. Arrested Jews, took their property, and drove them out of France. (usury)
2. Persecuted and destroyed the Knights Templar claiming their treasury in 1312.