AP Comparative Government Unit 2: Political Institutions Quick Reference
Classification of Political Systems
Parliamentary System (United Kingdom): Lawmaking and executive branches are fused. The House of Commons selects and can remove the head of government (Prime Minister Andy Burnham, who took office 20 July 2026). The monarch (King Charles III) serves as ceremonial head of state.
Presidential Systems (Mexico, Nigeria): Characterized by separation of powers with direct, fixed-term elections for the executive and legislature. The president acts as both head of state and head of government (Claudia Sheinbaum in Mexico; Bola Tinubu in Nigeria).
Semi-Presidential System (Russia): A directly elected president acts as head of state (Vladimir Putin) and nominates a Prime Minister as head of government (Mikhail Mishustin), who must be approved by the State Duma.
Communist Party-State (China): Real executive and legislative power sits within the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), particularly the 7-member Politburo Standing Committee. Xi Jinping concurrently serves as CCP General Secretary, State President, and Central Military Commission chair; Premier Li Qiang serves as head of government.
Theocratic Republic (Iran): Religious authorities outrank civil officials. The unelected Supreme Leader (Mojtaba Khamenei, appointed March 2026 following the death of Ali Khamenei on 28 February 2026) exercises ultimate authority over the directly elected president (Masoud Pezeshkian).
Executive Powers, Term Limits, and Removal Procedures
United Kingdom:
Term Limits: No formal term limits for the Prime Minister; monarchs serve for life.
Removal: The Prime Minister can be removed via internal party replacement (such as Keir Starmer stepping down in 2026), defeat in a general election, or a vote of no confidence in the House of Commons (last successful in 1979 by 311–310).
Election Timing: The Fixed-term Parliaments Act was repealed in 2022, restoring the Prime Minister's power to advise an early election.
Mexico:
Term Limits: Strict, non-renewable six-year term (sexenio) rooted in the revolutionary principle "effective suffrage, no reelection."
Removal: The president cannot be removed via ordinary impeachment (limited to treason and serious crimes). A direct recall referendum (revocación de mandato) was introduced in 2019, requiring a 40% voter turnout threshold to be legally binding (next recall set for 4 June 2028).
Nigeria:
Term Limits: Two four-year terms for the president and state governors.
Election Threshold: To win in round one, a presidential candidate requires a national plurality plus at least 25% of the vote in at least two-thirds of the states (24 of 36).
Removal: Impeachment for "gross misconduct" initiated by one-third of lawmakers and confirmed by a two-thirds vote in both chambers of the National Assembly.
Russia:
Term Limits: Two consecutive six-year terms; 2020 constitutional amendments reset Vladimir Putin's previous terms, allowing eligibility through 2036.
Removal: Impeachment requires charges by the Duma, rulings from the high courts, and a two-thirds vote by the Federation Council; 2020 amendments confer lifetime legal immunity on former presidents.
China:
Term Limits: The National People's Congress (NPC) removed the two-term limit on the presidency in 2018; the Premier remains limited to two terms.
Removal: The NPC holds formal removal authority, but leadership changes are conducted internally by senior CCP leadership.
Iran:
Term Limits: The Supreme Leader holds conditional life tenure; the president is restricted to no more than two consecutive four-year terms.
Removal: The 88-member Assembly of Experts possesses the constitutional power to dismiss the Supreme Leader (never utilized); the Majles can impeach the president (used once, against President Banisadr in 1981).
Legislative Structures and Constraints
Bicameral Legislatures:
United Kingdom: House of Commons (650 seats, elected via first-past-the-post) holds supreme authority; House of Lords (about 800 appointed peers; hereditary peers removed 29 April 2026) can only delay legislation (one month for money bills, one year for others).
Mexico: Nearly co-equal Congress composed of the Chamber of Deputies (500 seats: 300 single-member districts, 200 proportional representation) and Senate (128 seats). Constitutional amendments require a two-thirds supermajority in both chambers plus approval by 17 of 32 state legislatures.
Russia: Federal Assembly consisting of the State Duma (450 seats: 225 single-member districts, 225 proportional party-list with a 5% threshold) and the appointed Federation Council. United Russia holds 349 seats following the 2026 election.
Nigeria: National Assembly consisting of the Senate (109 seats) and House of Representatives (360 seats, single-member districts); co-equal on federal lawmaking.
Unicameral Legislatures:
China: National People's Congress (about 2,977 deputies indirectly elected for five-year terms); meets annually for approximately one week, delegating day-to-day legislative power to the NPC Standing Committee.
Iran: Majles (290 seats, four-year terms), subject to legislative supervision and review by the unelected Guardian Council.
Institutional Constraints:
Internal Checks: Executive dominance is maintained via party discipline and majority whips in parliamentary systems, whereas multi-party coalitions (e.g., PT and PVEM in Mexico) can act as veto points against constitutional initiatives.
External Checks: Candidate vetting by Iran's 12-member Guardian Council, candidate disqualifications by Russia's judiciary (such as removing Yabloko in 2026), and judicial rulings limiting executive action in the UK (e.g., Miller I in 2017 and prorogation in 2019).
Judiciaries and Judicial Independence
Legal Traditions:
Common Law: Relies on precedent and case law (United Kingdom, Nigeria).
Civil Law: Relies on statutory codification (Mexico, Russia).
Religious / Sharia Law: Integrated into criminal and family courts alongside civil bodies (Iran; Sharia courts in northern Nigeria).
Judicial Selection and Structure:
United Kingdom: 12 Supreme Court justices appointed through independent selection commissions; tenure protected until mandatory retirement at age 75; reviews executive actions but cannot overturn Acts of Parliament.
Mexico: 9 Supreme Court justices directly elected by popular vote starting 1 June 2025; an October 2024 constitutional reform stripped courts of the authority to review constitutional amendments.
Nigeria: Supreme Court justices recommended by the National Judicial Council, nominated by the president, confirmed by the Senate, and retire at age 70; possesses constitutional judicial review.
Russia: Top judges nominated by the president and approved by the Federation Council; judicial review exists formally but courts operate as an instrument of executive authority.
China: Rejects judicial independence in favor of "rule by law"; the Supreme People's Court is subordinate to the CCP and NPC oversight.
Iran: The Chief Justice is appointed by the Supreme Leader for five-year terms; oversees civil courts and Revolutionary Courts that try security offenses.
Core Factors of Judicial Independence: Independence is evaluated across five dimensions: constitutional authority (possession of judicial review), appointment procedures, term length and tenure security, professional qualifications, and removal mechanisms.