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civil liberties: fundamental rights and freedoms of citizens

protected from infringement by the government.

civil rights: protections from discrimination as a member of a

particular group.

bill of rights: a list of fundamental rights and freedoms that

individuals possess. The first ten amendments to the Constitution

are referred to as the Bill of Rights.

due process clause: the clause in the Fourteenth Amendment that

restricts state governments from denying citizens life, liberty, or

property without legal safeguards.

selective incorporation: the piecemeal process through which the

Supreme Court affirmed that almost all of the protections in the

Bill of Rights also apply to state governments.

establishment clause: First Amendment protection against the

government requiring citizens to join or support a religion.

free exercise clause: First Amendment protection of the rights of

individuals to exercise and express their religious beliefs.

freedom of expression: a fundamental right affirmed in the First

Amendment to speak, publish, and protest.

clear and present danger test: legal standard that speech posing

an immediate and serious threat to national security is not

protected by the First Amendment.

prior restraint: the suppression of material prior to publication on

the grounds that it might endanger national security.

symbolic speech: protected expression in form of images, signs,

and other symbols.

libel: an untrue written statement that injures a person’s

reputation.

slander: an untrue spoken expression that injures a person’s

reputation.

obscenity and pornography: words, images, or videos that depict

sexual activity in an offensive manner and that lacks any artistic merit.

ex post facto laws: laws criminalizing conduct that was legal at

the time it occurred.

bill of attainder: a law passed by Congress punishing an

individual without a trial.

writ of habeas corpus: a document setting out reasons for an

arrest or detention.

procedural due process: a judicial standard requiring that fairness

be applied to all individuals equally.

warrant: a document issued by a judge authorizing a search.

probable cause: reasonable belief that a crime has been

committed or that there is evidence of criminal activity.

exclusionary rule: a rule that evidence obtained without a warrant

is inadmissible in court.

grand jury: a group of citizens who, based on the evidence

presented to them, decide whether or not a person should be

indicted for criminal charges and subsequently tried in court.

double jeopardy: protects an individual acquitted of a crime from

being charged with the same crime in the same jurisdiction.

Miranda rights: the right to remain silent and to have an attorney

present during questioning; these rights must be given by police

to individuals suspected of criminal activity.

bail: an amount of money posted as a security to allow the

defendant to be freed while awaiting trial.

civil rights: protections for individuals from discrimination based on

race, national origin, religion, sex, and other characteristics, ensuring

equal treatment under the law.

Thirteenth Amendment: an amendment to the Constitution passed

in 1865 prohibiting slavery within the United States.

Fourteenth Amendment: an amendment to the Constitution passed

in 1868 granting citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in

the United States and placing restrictions on state laws that sought

to abridge the privileges and immunities of citizens of the United

States.

equal protection clause: clause of the Fourteenth Amendment that

has been used to protect the civil rights of Americans from discrimination based on race, national origin, religion, gender, and other characteristics.

Fifteenth Amendment: an amendment to the Constitution passed

in 1870 granting voting rights to African Americans.

separate but equal: the doctrine that racial segregation was

constitutional so long as the facilities for blacks and whites were equal.

legal segregation: the separation by law of individuals based on

their race.

de jure segregation: the separation of individuals based on their

characteristics, such as race, intentionally and by law.

de facto segregation: a separation of individuals based on their

characteristics that arises not by law but because of other factors,

such as residential housing patterns.

affirmative action: a policy designed to address the consequences

of previous discrimination by providing special consideration to

individuals

social movement: large groups of citizens organizing for political

change.

civil disobedience: the intentional refusal to obey a law to call

attention to its injustice.

Civil Rights Act of 1964: legislation outlawing racial segregation

in schools and public places and authorizing the attorney general

to sue individual school districts that failed to desegregate.

Voting Rights Act of 1965: legislation outlawing literacy tests and

authorizing the Justice Department to send federal officers to

Nineteenth Amendment: a 1920 constitutional amendment

granting women the right to vote.

Title IX of the Higher Education Amendments of 1972: legislation

prohibiting sex discrimination in schools receiving federal aid,

which had the impact of increasing female participation in sports

programs.

pork barrel spending: legislation that directs specific funds to

projects within districts or states.

logrolling: trading of votes on legislation by members of

Congress to get their earmarks passed into legislation.

oversight: efforts by Congress to ensure that executive branch

agencies, bureaus, and cabinet departments, as well as their

officials are acting legally and in accordance with congressional goals.

constituency: a body of voters in a given area who elect a

representative or senator.

apportionment: the process of determining the number of

representatives for each state using census data.

redistricting: states’ redrawing of boundaries of electoral districts following each census.

gerrymandering: the intentional use of redistricting to benefit a

specific interest or group of voters.

partisan gerrymandering: drawing of district boundaries into strange shapes to benefit a political party.

majority-minority district: a district in which voters of a minority ethnicity constitute an electoral majority within that electoral district.

malapportionment: the uneven distribution of the population

among legislative districts.

incumbency: being already in office as opposed to running for the

first time.

incumbency advantage: institutional advantages held by those already in office who are trying to fend off challengers in an election.

Speaker of the House: the leader of the House of Representatives, chosen by an election of its members.

political action committee (PAC): an organization that raises money for candidates and campaigns.

House majority leader: the person who is the second in command of the House of Representatives.

whip: a member of Congress, chosen by his or her party members, whose job is to ensure party unity and discipline.

minority leader: the head of the party with the second-highest number of seats in Congress, chosen by the party’s members.

Senate majority leader: the person who has the most power in the Senate and is the head of the party with the most seats.

committee chair: leader of a congressional committee who has authority over the committee’s agenda.

discharge petition: a motion filed by a member of Congress to move a bill out of committee and onto the floor of the House of Representatives for a vote.

House Rules Committee: a powerful committee that determines when a bill will be subject to debate and vote on the House floor, how long the debate will last, and whether amendments will be allowed on the floor.

Committee of the Whole: Consists of all members of the House and meets in the House chamber but is governed by different rules, making it easier to consider complex and controversial legislation.

hold: a delay placed on legislation by a senator who objects to a bill.

unanimous consent agreement: an agreement in the Senate that sets the terms for consideration of a bill.

filibuster: a tactic through which an individual senator may use the right of unlimited debate to delay a motion or postpone action on a piece of legislation.

cloture: a procedure through which senators can end debate on a bill and proceed to action, provided 60 senators agree to it.

veto: the power of a president to reject a bill passed by Congress,

sending it back to the originating branch with objections.

Office of Management and Budget (OMB): the executive branch

office that assists the president in setting national spending

priorities.

entitlement program: a program that provides benefits for those

who qualify under the law, regardless of income.

mandatory spending: spending required by existing laws that is

“locked in” the budget.

discretionary spending: spending for programs and policies at the discretion of Congress and the president.

budget surplus: the amount of money remaining when the

the government takes in more than it spends.

budget deficit: the shortfall when a government takes in less

money than it spends.

national debt: the total amount of money owed by the federal

government.

delegate role: the idea that the main duty of a member of

Congress is to carry out constituents’ wishes.

trustee role: the idea that members of Congress should act as

trustees, making decisions based on their knowledge and

judgment.

politico role: representation where members of Congress balance

their choices with the interests of their constituents and parties in

making decisions.

bipartisanship: agreement between the parties to work together in

Congress to pass legislation.

gridlock: a slowdown or halt in Congress’s ability to legislate and

overcome divisions, especially those based on partisanship.

divided government: control of the presidency and one or both

chambers of Congress split between the two major parties.

lame duck period: period at the end of a presidential term when

Congress may block presidential initiatives and nominees.