Detailed Notes on Sanskrit Dramas
Sanskrit Dramas
The Sanskrit term for drama is "Kavya" (Poet's work), classified into two types: Shravya (audible) and Drushya (visual). Shravyakavya is further divided into verse (Gadya), prose (Padya), and mixed works (Champu). Drushyakavya is divided into Rupakas (ten types) and Uparupakas (eighteen types).
Types of Rupakas
The ten types of Rupakas are:
Nataka: A heroic play, typically based on well-known stories of kings or divine beings.
Prakarana: A social play featuring realistic characters and situations, often dealing with love and politics.
Bana: A type of one-act play, characterized by battles and heroic encounters.
Prahasana: A farcical comedy, often satirical, designed to evoke laughter through humorous situations and characters.
Dima: A play involving battles, often based on mythology and featuring supernatural elements.
Vyayoga: A one-act play with a heroic theme and a limited number of characters.
Samavakara: A play with a complex plot, involving multiple acts and characters, often based on mythological stories.
Veethi: A one-act play with a mix of comedy and pathos, featuring witty dialogues.
Anka: Also known as Utsrishtikanka, a play that depicts a single act, typically focusing on grief or lamentation.
Ihamriga: A play with a complex and fanciful plot, involving both human and divine characters.
Types of Uparupakas
The eighteen types of Uparupakas are:
Natika: A short play with a female protagonist.
Trotaka: A play with songs and dances.
Goshti: A play depicting social gatherings.
Sattaka: A play written in Prakrit.
Natyarasaka: A play with dance and music.
Prasthana: A play depicting a journey.
Ullapya: A play with humorous dialogues.
Kavya: A poetic drama.
Prenkhana: A play with swaying movements.
Rasaka: A short musical play.
Sallapaka: A play with conversations.
Shreegadita: A play with amorous themes.
Shilpaka: A play depicting crafts.
Vilasika: A play with playful themes.
Durmallika: A play with difficult themes.
Prakarani: A minor Prakarana.
Hallisha: A play with folk dance.
Bhanika: A one-act play.
The features of Rupakas and Uparupakas are detailed in works like Dasharupaka, Natakalakshanaratnakasha, Bhavaprakasha, Natyadarpana, Sahityadarpana, and Prataparudriyam. These texts elaborate on the structure, themes, and dramatic elements of each type, providing guidelines for playwrights and critics.
Importance of Drama
Kalidasa, in "Malavikagnimitra," praises drama: नाट्यं भिन्नरुचेर्जनस्य बहुधाप्येकं समाराधनम्. This verse emphasizes that drama is a singular form of entertainment that delights people with varied interests, highlighting its universal appeal. Vamana emphasizes the importance of Rupakas, stating सन्दर्भेषु दशरूपकं श्रेयः । तद्धि चित्रपट विद्विशेषसाकल्यं ततोऽन्यभेदक्लृप्तिः दशरूपकस्यैवं हीदं विलसितम् । ( 1.3.30-32). This underscores that Rupaka is a general name for all compositions, indicating its fundamental role in dramatic arts.
Dramas attract the mind through plot (Vastu), characterization (Netas), and sentiments (Rasas). They exhibit life's conflicts and uphold ideal principles through entertainment, offering both aesthetic pleasure and moral instruction. Tracing the origin of dramas is difficult, with scholars holding varied opinions, each offering unique perspectives on its development.
Theory of Divine Origin
Tradition ascribes the origin of drama to Bharata, who received the art directly from Brahma, the creator. Detailed information is found in the first chapter of Natyashastra, the ancient treatise on dramaturgy. In Tretayuga, people were envious and lacked entertainment. Gods, led by Indra, asked Brahma to create the fifth Veda, accessible to all varnas, as the Vedas were not open to Shudras. The gods desired knowledge through entertainment:
क्रीडनीयकमिच्छामो दृश्यं श्रव्यं च यद्भवेत् ।
न वेदव्यवहारोऽयं संश्राव्यः शूद्रजातिषु ।
तस्मात् सृजापरं वेदं पञ्चमं सार्ववर्णिकम् ।।
Brahma created Natyaveda, taking recitation from Rigveda, music from Samaveda, action from Yajurveda, and rasa (emotions) from Atharvaveda:
नाट्यवेदं ततश्चक्रे चतुर्वेदाङ्गसम्भवम् ।
जग्राह पाठ्यं ऋग्वेदात् सामभ्मो गीतमेव च ।
यजुर्वेदादभिनयान् रसानाथर्वणादपि ।।
Brahma entrusted Natyaveda to Bharata and his hundred sons, tasking them with propagating this divine art. Natya is for all, integrating dialogue, music, action, and rasa from the Vedas. This theory suggests dramas originated in a Vedic environment and flourished independently, emphasizing its sacred origins and broad accessibility.
Dialogue Hymns of Rigveda
Dialogue hymns in Rigveda are considered a significant source for dramas, presenting conversations between various characters. There are 15 to 20 dialogue hymns (e.g., Indra-Marut, Yama-Yami, Pururavas-Urvashi). In Indra-Marut Samvada, Indra claims oblations and prayers, asserting his victory over Vrutra and the release of cows. The Maruts remind Indra of their crucial assistance in these feats. Maxmuller suggests this sukta is an ancient religious drama, highlighting its potential as an early form of dramatic expression. Dialogue hymns like Yama-Yami (X-10), Pururavas-Urvashi (X-95), and Vishvamitra-nadi (III.33) contain worldly points, delving into human emotions and conflicts.
One hymn in the tenth mandala of Rigveda tells of Agni's brothers, Bhupati, Bhuvanapathi, and Bhutapati, who died from carrying oblations. Agni, fearing the same fate, hid himself. Gods convinced him to resume his duties, showcasing a narrative with elements of fear, persuasion, and duty.
Shaunaka and Yaska call these hymns Samvadasuktas, recognizing their dialogic nature. Shaunaka identifies the 165th Sukta of the first mandala (I.165) as a Samvadasukta: तेषामगस्य: A: (Brihaddevata, IV.47). Some scholars term them Itihasas, indicating their historical or narrative content. Brihaddevata reflects on the 95th Sukta of the 10th mandala (X.95): संवादं मन्यते यास्क: इतिहास (VII. 153). Maxmuller called them Yajnika natakas, linking them to sacrificial dramas. Sylvan Levi and Shroeder see them as mystery plays, emphasizing their enigmatic and symbolic nature. Thus, dramas can be traced to these Samvadasuktas, underscoring their role as a foundational element in the development of Sanskrit drama.
Dramatical Elements in Sacrifices
Sanskrit dramas may have originated through dramatical elements of Yajnakarma, where rituals involved symbolic actions and dialogues. Examples include the selling of Soma in Somayaga and a quarrel between a Vyshya and Shudra in Satyayuga, adding dramatic tension to the ceremonies. In Mahavrata sacrifice, a brahmacharin and a courtezan engage in mutual abuse, reflecting social dynamics through ritualized conflict. Hillebrandt first proposed this theory, highlighting the significance of sacrificial rituals in the genesis of Sanskrit drama.
Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Grammatical Works
Some scholars trace the origin of Sanskrit dramas in Itihasa (epics) and Puranas (mythological texts). The word "Nata" is used in Mahabharata, indicating early awareness of dramatic performances. Panini (4th century B.C.) mentions Shilalin and Krishashva as natasutrakaras (authors of drama manuals) in Ashtadhyayi, providing evidence of early dramatic traditions. Harimvamsha says the Ramayana story was enacted by artists, suggesting the epic's performance. Some scholars believe references in Ramayana were added later, questioning their authenticity. Even if dramas didn't exist, Itihasa and Puranas were enacted by pauranikas through singing, preserving and transmitting narratives through performance. Patanjali's Mahabhashya refers to Shobhanikas enacting stories like Kamsavadha and Balibandha, demonstrating the prevalence of dramatic enactments. Ancient Sanskrit dramas may have originated from Itihasa, Purana, etc., emphasizing their roots in traditional storytelling and performance.
Puppet Shows
Scholars like Sten Konow suggest tracing Sanskrit dramas in secular environments, moving away from purely religious origins. Puppet shows in festive occasions may have motivated the origin of dramas, offering a popular form of entertainment. The term Sutradhara may derive from puppet shows, where dolls are made to dance by pulling strings, illustrating a potential link between puppetry and stage management. The puppet show's Sutradhara influenced the stage manager in Sanskrit dramas, indicating a possible transfer of roles and techniques. This theory is unhistorical, as the organization of drama rests on Sutradhara, pointing out the importance of the stage manager. Puppet shows might have flourished due to Sanskrit dramas, suggesting a reciprocal influence. The origin of Sanskrit drama may have connections with these ancient traditions of puppetry, influencing key dramatic roles and techniques.
Greek Influence on the Origin of Sanskrit Dramas
Dialogue hymns, sacrifices, Itihasa, and Puranas created an environment conducive to Sanskrit dramas, enriching its themes and forms. Natyashastra existed by the first century A.D., codifying dramatic theory and practice. Some believe Greek dramas influenced Sanskrit dramas due to similarities like division into acts, actors exiting, new characters hinted, finger ring usage, Vidushaka characters, and the term 'Yavanina' for curtain. However, these similarities don't necessarily imply influence, suggesting independent development. Division of acts and character exits are natural, arising from the needs of storytelling. 'Yavanika' likely refers to the cloth's origin from Yavanadesha, indicating a geographical connection rather than direct influence.
Features of Sanskrit Dramas
The prime feature is an attractive composition and plot, engaging the audience with compelling narratives. The drama commences with Nandi, followed by prastavana or sthapana, an introduction by Sutradhara with nati or pariparshvaka, setting the stage for the performance. The Sutradhara gives a brief introduction and exits, handing over the narrative to the actors. The plot develops through acts (5 to 10, some single act), each contributing to the unfolding story. Arthaprakritis (plot elements) and Avasthas (stages of action) relate to the main and sub-plots, structuring the narrative. There are five Sandhis (mukha, pratimukha, garbha, vimarsha/avamarsha, and nirvahana) and Sandhyangas supporting plot, character development, and rasas, enhancing the dramatic experience.
Not all instances are shown on stage. Interesting ones are enacted, while insipid but necessary scenes are narrated by minor characters, maintaining audience engagement. Travel, death, war, revolution, etc., are intimated through minor characters (Arthopakshepakas), avoiding direct depiction. The drama concludes with 'Bharatavakya,' wishing good for all, bestowing blessings upon the audience and society. Sanskrit dramas commence with Nandi, develop the plot, and conclude with Bharatavakya, adhering to a structured format. Incidents in each act should occur in one place and within a day. Subsequent acts can occur at different times and places, allowing flexibility in storytelling.
Another feature is no division of comedy and tragedy except in Bhasa's 'Urubhangam'. Sanskrit dramas generally lack tragedy, with a preference for happy endings. The defeat or death of the hero would undermine ideals. Therefore, Sanskrit dramas are typically sukhanta (happy ending), preserving harmony and optimism. The intentional absence of tragedies underscores the cultural preference for optimistic and morally uplifting narratives.
The most striking feature is the mixed use of Sanskrit and Prakrit. Some main male characters may speak in Prakrit, and sometimes male characters speak in Prakrit while female characters speak in Sanskrit. This linguistic diversity adds layers of meaning, highlighting social status, regional identity, and emotional tone.
Technical Terminologies of Sanskrit Drama
Naandi (नान्दी)
Naandi is the introductory benediction at the beginning of every play, paying homage to deities, Brahmins, Kings, etc., with an invocation for blessing, initiating the performance with reverence. According to Sahitya Darpana:
आशीर्वचनासंयुक्ता स्तुतिर्यस्मात्प्रयुज्यते ।
देवद्विजनृपादीनां तस्मान्नान्दीति संज्ञिता । ।
Naandi is a preliminary worship, setting a sacred tone. Natyadarpana derives Naandi thus:
नन्दन्ति काव्यानि कवीन्द्रवर्गाः कुशीलवाः परिषदाश्च सन्तः ।
यस्मादियं सज्जनसिन्धुहंसी तस्मादियं सा कथितेह नान्दी । ।
नन्दन्ति अस्यामिति, अस्या इति वा नान्दी - Naandi means that by which poets, musicians, spectators, or literary works are delighted, underscoring its role in fostering joy and appreciation. Nandi is also the bull of Lord Shiva, whose back served as a stage:
नन्दी वृषः कोऽपि महेश्वरस्य रङ्गत्वमादौ किल स्वे जगाम ।
तद्रङ्गमुद्दिश्य कृतां तु पूजां नान्दीति तां नाट्यविदो वदन्ति ।।
Naandi is the initial worship for successful staging, invoking divine blessings for a successful performance. It's used at the beginning of Bhasa's plays but later denotes benedictory verses composed by the poet (as in Shaakuntala), highlighting its evolution from a ritual to a literary element.
Sutradhara (सूत्रधार :)
सूत्रं प्रयोगानुष्ठानं धारयतीति सूत्रधारः - Sutradhara means a stage-manager who holds the conduct of the stage, overseeing all aspects of the production. The definition is:
नाट्योपकरणादीनि सूत्रमित्यभिधीयते ।
सूत्रं धारयतीत्यर्थे सूत्रधारो निगद्यते । ।
There are two kinds: Naandi Sutradhara and Sthaapana Sutradhara, each with specific responsibilities. The Naandi Sutradhara performs Purvaranga, and the Sthaapana Sutradhara introduces the play (also called Sthaapaka: स च काव्यार्थस्थापनात् सूचनात्स्थापकः). In Bhasa's plays, the Naandi Sutradhara confines himself to Purvaranga, and the Sthaapaka pronounces the benedictory stanza. In classical dramas like Shaakuntaala, the Naandi Sutradhara performs Purvaranga and pronounces Mangalashloka, demonstrating variations in practice.
Sthapana (स्थापना)
Sthapana, Prastavana, and Aamukham give the same meaning, referring to the prologue. The word is used in Bhasa's plays, signifying the initial establishment of the dramatic setting. The prologue literally means foundation, setting the groundwork for the play. The word is used generally in Kalidasa's dramas, indicating its widespread acceptance. Dasharupaka defines thus:
सूत्रधारो नटीं ब्रूते मारिषं वा विदूषकं ।
स्वकार्य प्रस्तुताक्षेपि चित्रोक्त्या यत्तदामुखं ।।
प्रस्तावना वा ।।
In the prologue, the stage manager converses with the actress, assistant actor, or clown to introduce the play, engaging in witty exchanges to capture the audience's attention. Generally, there's a mention of the poet and flattering of the spectators, honoring the playwright and the audience. Bharatha in his Natyashastra says as follows:
प्रसाद्य रङ्गं विधिवत् कवेर्नाम च कीर्तयेत् ।
प्रस्तावना ततः कुर्यात् काव्यप्रख्यापनाश्रयां । ।
Vishkambhaka (विष्कम्भकः )
The plot is of two kinds: सूच्य (to be indicated) and असूच्य (to be presented). The असूच्य portions are shown on the stage, while सूच्य is indicated by an interlude and is of five kinds: Vishkambhaka, Praveshaka, Chulika, Angkasya, and Angkavatara. Vishkambhaka is a link between past and future events, conversed by middle characters, providing context and continuity.
वृत्तवर्तिष्यमाणानां कथांशानां निदर्शकः
संक्षेपार्थस्तु विष्कम्भो मध्यपात्रप्रयोजितः ।।
There are two kinds: शुद्ध (pure) and मिश्र (mixed). In शुद्धविष्कम्भक, middle characters alone take part in Sanskrit. In मिश्र, low characters also take part, and the conversation is in both Prakrit and Sanskrit, adding layers of linguistic complexity.
Praveshaka (प्रवेशकः )
Praveshaka is an interlude like Vishkambhaka, linking past and future events, maintaining thematic coherence. It is conversed by low characters in purely Prakrit, highlighting their social status through language. It is not introduced at the beginning of Act I, preserving its specific function within the play's structure.
वृत्तवर्तिष्यमाणानां कथांशानां निदर्शकः ।
प्रवेशकस्तुनाद्येऽ नीचपात्रप्रयोजितः ||
Bharatavakyam ( भरतवाक्यम्)
Bharatavakyam is sung in the last Act, in the form of a prayer for the welfare of the king and citizens, concluding the play with blessings. It may be included to offer salutations to the author of "Natyashastra", acknowledging the treatise's importance. Bharata means actor. Scholars believe all Bharata's or actors sung together at the end, creating a communal conclusion. In Charudatta, due to unavailability of the last part, the actors or Sage Bharata are respectfully remembered, honoring the tradition even in incomplete performances