Study Notes on the Incarceration of Japanese Americans During World War II

Chapter 11: ‘Grave Injustices’: The Incarceration of Japanese Americans During World War II

Life Behind Topaz Relocation Center

• Conditions:

  • Described as monotonous and crude, with incomplete and ill-prepared facilities.

  • Referred to as a "city of dust" reflecting the harsh and inhospitable environment.

• Emotional Impact:

  • Frustration and discontent among inmates due to living conditions.

Summary of Incarceration

• Population Affected:

  • About 120,000 Japanese Americans were forcibly relocated, which included 1,100 individuals from Hawai’i and approximately 6,000 who were born in incarceration camps.

  • The relocations took place across ten War Relocation Authority (WRA) camps.

Executive Order 9066

• Issuance and Details:

  • Signed on February 19, 1942, by President Franklin D. Roosevelt.

  • General DeWitt issued the first public proclamation on March 1, 1942, mandating the removal and exclusion of all persons of Japanese ancestry from various western states including Washington, Oregon, California, and parts of Arkansas.

• Curfew and Preparations:

  • Curfew imposed on Japanese Americans, preventing them from leaving their homes from 8 PM until 6 AM.

  • Certain areas were designated as restricted for Japanese Americans.

  • Families were given only one week to prepare for evacuation, instructed to bring only what they could carry.

• Impact on Property and Businesses:

  • Families were forced to sell their homes, businesses, and valuables at significant losses, particularly affecting vegetable and fruit farmers.

  • Japanese Americans submitted 26,000 claims under the 1948 Japanese-American Evacuation Claims Act amounting to $148 million, but only $37 million was distributed.

Personal Accounts

• Tom Akashi:

  • A 13-year-old Nisei (second-generation Japanese American) expressed confusion over why Germans and Italians were not subject to similar actions.

• Evacuation Day Experience:

  • Upon designated evacuation days, Japanese Americans were ordered into specific zones and encountered armed U.S. soldiers.

  • Individuals received identification tags and were assigned family numbers (e.g., “Family #10710”).

Transportation and Conditions at Assembly Centers

• Transfer to Assembly Centers:

  • Japanese Americans were transported to 16 hastily established assembly centers, often located in California, Oregon, Washington, and Arkansas.

  • Sites typically included refurbished fairgrounds and racetracks, with individuals housed in former animal stalls and makeshift barracks.

  • Barbed wire fences and guard towers surrounded these centers.

• Living Conditions:

  • Families were often confined in rooms no larger than 20 x 20 feet, separated by flimsy partitions and forced to create their own mattresses using bags of straw.

  • Food quality was poor: meals often included discolored meat, moldy bread, and overcooked vegetables.

  • Personal accounts highlight emotional distress, such as mothers crying upon arrival at the facilities.

Sentiments of Powerlessness and Resistance

• Inmates generally felt powerless, with assertions made that compliance was necessary to exhibit loyalty.

• Constitutional Challenges:

  • Some Japanese Americans, such as Minori Yasui and Gordon Hirabayashi, actively defied laws and challenged their treatment in court.

  • Yasui deliberately violated the curfew and sought arrest, which led to a court ruling that, while declaring the curfew illegal, also suggested the revocation of his citizenship.

  • Hirabayashi contended that the executive order denoted a second-class status for Japanese Americans.

  • Fred Korematsu's Case:

  • Resisted relocation and was arrested; his case went to the Supreme Court.

  • The 1944 ruling partially upheld the government's position of military necessity but acknowledged racial discrimination as part of the motivation behind the orders.

The Conditions and Impact of War Relocation Authority Camps

• In 1942, 120,000 Japanese Americans were moved to ten newly constructed WRA camps, which were located in inhospitable climates, ranging from deserts to swamplands.

  • Highlighted were poor conditions with dust storms and extreme temperatures, contributing to a harsh living experience.

• Community Building Efforts:

  • The WRA aimed for self-sufficient communities, providing housing, medical care, and education at no cost. However, wages for work were significantly low, forcing inmates into menial positions that undermined their traditional roles.

  • Despite adversities, some Japanese Americans engaged in entrepreneurial activities within the camps.

Loyalty Review Program (1943)

• Overview and Implications:

  • Due to declining fears of an attack from Japan, the WRA initiated a loyalty review program to assess the loyalty of detainees.

  • Inmates over 17 were required to take a loyalty questionnaire that assessed their commitment to the U.S.

  • Key questions included a demand for individuals to renounce allegiance to Japan and express willingness to serve the U.S. military, raising issues of loyalty versus incarceration among detainees.

Protests and Strikes

• Events at Tule Lake:

  • High tensions and dissatisfaction led to strikes among farm workers in 1943, demanding better living and working conditions, which resulted in security forces violently repressing strikers.

• Legal Repercussions:

  • Many individuals involved faced martial law, curfews, searches, and severe repression, leading to imprisonment without charges.

Post-War Experiences and Resettlement

• The Supreme Court's ruling in the Endo case led to the lifting of blanket exclusion orders by January 1945.

  • Favorable rulings encouraged the government to facilitate the resettlement of Japanese Americans outside of concentrated areas, intending to disperse the population amid concerns for rehabilitation.

  • Japanese Americans released faced challenges of discrimination, poverty, and the need to integrate in post-war society while still dealing with the ramifications of their past experiences.

Japanese Peruvians and Other Detained Individuals

• During and after the war, Japanese Latin Americans faced wrongful detainment, described as “undocumented immigrants” despite being forcibly brought to the U.S.

  • Many were detained in camps, experiencing severe restrictions, including shared housing, lack of privacy, and fears about their future.

  • Legal and civil liberties battles ensued to rectify the wrongs committed against this population.

Conclusion

• The incarceration of Japanese Americans during WWII illustrates significant violations of civil liberties grounded in systemic racism and wartime paranoia. Their experiences led to resilience, community organization, and a push towards civil rights advocacy post-war.

Sample Quiz Questions

1. What was Executive Order 9066, who signed it and when, and what did it order of people of Japanese ancestry?

2. Summarize what at least two Japanese Americans did to challenge the constitutionality of their treatment when EO 9066 was put into effect.

3. What were the living conditions in both the hastily erected “assemble centers” and so-called camps? What did Japanese Americans do to survive? What hardships did they face? What conflicts?

4. Explain the “loyalty review program,” its intention and varied reactions from incarcerated Japanese Americans.

5. What happened at Tule Lake, and why did people go on strike? What happened to those who protested?

6. Who were the men from the 442nd Regimental Combat Team and 100th Infantry Battalion?

7. How were men who resisted the draft treated?

8. What happened to Japanese Peruvians? Where did they go after they arrived in the U.S., what was their status, what happened to them during incarceration, and after the war ended and they were released from the detention centers?

9. Where did Japanese Americans go after they were released from the camps? Where and how were they encouraged to live? How were they treated outside the camps?