Protestantism at the Edges and A Convulsed Age 13-14

Protestantism at the Edges

During the 16th century, the prevailing view among Catholics, Lutherans, Reformed, and Anglicans was that a state should adhere to a single religion, compelling all subjects to conform. The Anabaptists, with the exception of extremist groups, dissented from this view. Their advocacy for tolerance was rarely reciprocated by states, as their refusal to establish a state religion hindered their acceptance. The Peace of Augsburg established the principle of cuius regio, eius religio, meaning that the ruler's religion determined the religion of the territory.

The religious conflicts in France exemplify the consequences of enforcing a single religion within a state. The Edict of Nantes, which sought to end these wars, allowed Protestantism to persist by designating specific cities as Protestant strongholds, while the rest of the nation remained Catholic.

Spain

Prior to the Protestant Reformation, there was widespread anticipation that Spain would spearhead a much-needed reform of the church. Figures such as Isabella and Cardinal Jimenez de Cisneros had initiated significant religious reforms, notably the promotion of biblical studies through initiatives like the Complutensian Polyglot Bible.

However, the landscape shifted with the emergence of the Protestant Reformation. Martin Luther's confrontation with Emperor Charles V, who was also King Charles I of Spain, at the Diet of Worms led the House of Austria to champion opposition against Lutheranism. Consequently, the Spanish Inquisition, which had previously focused on those accused of Judaizing or witchcraft, redirected its efforts towards suppressing any calls for reformation that resembled Lutheranism.

Prominent humanists sought refuge in regions offering greater freedom, while others retreated into scholarly pursuits, distancing themselves from religious controversies. Nevertheless, the Inquisition's attempts to suppress Lutheranism were not entirely successful. Cities like Valladolid and Seville witnessed repeated autos de fe wherein individuals convicted of Lutheranism were punished.

A Jeronamite monastery in Santiponce, near Seville, secretly became a hub for reformation activities. Bibles and Protestant literature were smuggled into the monastery in barrels disguised as oil or wine. When the smuggler was apprehended and burned, and news reached the monastery that the Inquisition was aware of their activities, twelve monks fled to Geneva. One of these monks became a pastor in the Spanish-speaking community in Geneva. Another, Casiodoro de Reina, dedicated his life to translating the bible into Spanish, culminating in the publication of a translation in 1569 that is regarded as a masterpiece of Spanish literature. Later, Cipriano de Valera revised this version, which became known as the Reina-Valera Bible.

In Santiponce and throughout the Seville region, the Inquisition continued to purge the church of what they termed Lutheranism, although many were actually Calvinists or Erasmians advocating for humanist-inspired reform. Research suggests that the Inquisition's efforts were not entirely effective, and some remnants of the reform movement persisted in Santiponce for some time.

Italy

In the remote valleys of the Alps and, to a lesser extent, in other parts of Italy and Southern France, the Waldensian community, founded by Peter Waldo in the 12th century, maintained a secluded existence. Despite repeated attacks aimed at suppressing their beliefs, they remained steadfast in their mountain strongholds. However, by the early 16th century, the movement appeared to be losing momentum due to relentless threats and persecutions, leading many to return to Catholicism.

In 1526, an emissary reported that a significant reformation movement was underway in Germany, Switzerland, France, and other regions, and that its doctrines aligned with long-held Waldensian beliefs. Further discussions with reformers like Ecco Lamparius and Puzzar led to the affirmation of most Waldensian doctrines, along with suggestions for aligning them more closely with scripture. In 1532, the Waldensians convened a synod, representing the pastors and heads of families from the Valleys of Piedmont, and adopted the main tenets of the Protestant Reformation, thus becoming the oldest Protestant church.

This decision led to increased difficulties for the Waldensians. Their fellow believers in Southern France faced invasion and near extermination, with most survivors seeking refuge in the Alps. Subsequent edicts forbade attendance at Protestant worship and mandated attendance at mass. The more accessible regions of the Piedmont were devastated, leading more Waldensians to seek refuge in secluded areas of the Alps.

The Waldensian communities in Calabria, Southern Italy, were exterminated. Despite facing large armies supported by the pope, the Duke of Savoy, and other lords, the Waldensians in the Alps remained resolute in their faith and successfully defended their territory.

In 1655, Waldensians in Northern Italy were ordered to leave their lands within three days, selling them to Catholics and relocating to less desirable areas. The Marquis of Bianjetsa, tasked with exterminating the Waldensians, initially offered peace but then turned on his hosts, resulting in the massacre of men, women, and children.

Under pressure from Louis XIV of France, the Duke of Savoy expelled Waldensians, leading many to seek exile in Geneva and other Protestant areas. However, some remained on their ancestral lands, facing constant threats of invasion and violence. It was not until the revolution of 1848 and the promulgation of the constitution for the Kingdom of Piedmont that the Waldensians were granted freedom of worship.

In 1850, famine struck, revealing that the Alpine Valleys could no longer sustain the population. Consequently, Waldensians began emigrating to Uruguay and Argentina, where they flourished and became leaders in agricultural innovation. In 1975, the Waldensian communities in the Americas and Europe unified under a single synod, holding sessions on both continents.

Besides the Waldensians, Juan de Valdez and Bernardino Aquino were other notable figures in Italy. Valdez, a Spanish Erasmian with Protestant leanings, sought refuge in Italy after facing persecution in Spain. In Naples, he gathered a group of followers dedicated to bible study. Aquino, a renowned preacher and former general of the Capuchins, openly embraced Protestant principles. Facing threats from the Inquisition, he fled to Geneva and embarked on a series of wanderings, eventually rejecting the doctrine of the Trinity.

Hungary

During the early Protestant Reformation, Hungary was ruled by King Louis II. In 1526, the Ottoman Turks defeated the Hungarians and killed the king. Subsequently, Ferdinand of Habsburg was elected to the throne by some Hungarian nobles, while others supported Janusz II Zapolya, also known as John Sigismund. Hungary was divided between Habsburg and Ottoman rule.

The Habsburgs supported Catholicism and sought to suppress Protestantism. However, in Transylvania, King Sigismund declared that four forms of Christianity would have equal standing: Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism, the Reformed tradition, and Unitarianism.

The Ottomans, who controlled much of Hungary, often promoted divisions among Christians, initially disadvantaging Catholics until Protestantism gained strength, at which point the policy was reversed. Consequently, the number of Franciscans in the land decreased significantly. Lutheranism spread early in Hungary, with Luther's theses circulating shortly after their posting. By 1523, the Hungarian diet ordered the burning of Lutherans. Zwingli's teachings later entered the scene, facing similar opposition.

Protestantism grew rapidly in Ottoman-occupied territories. Hungarians favored the Reformed tradition over Lutheranism due to its decentralized form of church government, which aligned with their desire for shared authority between pastors and laity. This decentralized structure also made it more difficult for Ottoman authorities to exert pressure on church leaders.

Both the Habsburgs and the Ottomans attempted to control the spread of unwanted teachings through the printing press. Despite these efforts, Protestant books circulated, often produced in clandestine presses and smuggled in barrels. This led to the publication of vernacular bibles, such as the Karli Bible in 1590 and the Visually Bible in 1607, which played a similar role to Luther's bible in German. By 1600, it was estimated that four out of five Hungarians were Protestant.

In the early 17th century, Ottoman power waned, and Transylvania clashed with the Habsburgs. The Treaty of Vienna granted equal rights to Catholics and Protestants. However, the Thirty Years' War brought greater devastation. Ultimately, the Habsburgs gained control over Hungary, imposing anti-Protestant measures and leading the country to become predominantly Catholic.

Poland

During Luther's time, there was a growing number of Hussites in Western Poland who had fled from Bohemia. Luther's writings and teachings were brought into Poland mostly by students from Wittenberg which initially spread slowly due to Polish distrust of German influence.

Calvinism gained momentum in Poland because it was not associated with German origins. King Sigismund I opposed Protestant doctrines, but King Sigismund II supported Calvinism and corresponded with Calvin. Jan Lasky, the leader of the Calvinist movement in Poland, translated the bible into Polish and worked to reconcile Calvinists and Lutherans.

The Polish government generally adopted a policy of religious tolerance, attracting a large number of religious refugees. Among these was Faustus Socinus, who denied the divinity of Jesus. His views were defended in the Racovian Catechism, which affirmed that only the Father is God, that Jesus is purely human, and that the Holy Spirit is God's power and presence.

Throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, both Protestantism and Socinian Unitarianism gained followers. However, as Polish national identity developed in opposition to Russian Orthodoxy and German Lutheranism, Poland became increasingly Roman Catholic.

A Convulsed Age

The 16th century was a pivotal period in Christian history, marked by the fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the discovery of America in 1492. Previously, Christianity was limited by Muslims to the South and East and by the Atlantic Ocean to the West. The fall of Constantinople and the rise of Turkish power seemed to threaten Christianity's survival.

However, by the end of the century, Islam's challenge was countered by the Spanish Reconquista in 1492, the failure of the Turkish armies to take Vienna in 1529, and the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, where the joint navies defeated the Turkish navy. Simultaneously, the Atlantic became a gateway for Western civilization and Christianity to expand. The Spanish conquered vast new lands, establishing Roman Catholicism, while the Portuguese established trading colonies and missions in the Far East. Many Muslim lands later became European colonies.

In the Americas, Africa, and the Far East, Christianity established strong footholds, becoming centers of vitality and mission. These geopolitical shifts occurred alongside momentous changes in Europe, including the collapse of medieval Christianity, the Council of Trent's establishment of modern Catholicism, and the rise of Protestant confessions.

The ideal of a single church under the pope lost its power in the West, leading to divisions among Western Christianity. Initially, Protestant reformers believed in the unity of the church and sought to restore it. The notion that a state required religious agreement among its subjects, prevalent since Constantine, led to wars of religion. Eventually, the idea that religious agreement was necessary for state security was challenged, leading to policies of religious tolerance and the rise of the lay state.

The 16th century also witnessed the collapse of political unity under the empire and the failure of conciliarist hopes for reformation. The papacy achieved its own reformation without a council, and the Council of Trent became a tool of the papacy. The reformers of the time, including Luther, Erasmus, Calvin, Knox, Loyola, and Menno Simons, stood firm in their faith in the power of the Word of God. Luther and Calvin believed that the Roman Catholic Church's continued reading of the Word meant that there was always a vestige of the church.

The Reformation and the colonization of new lands were the two dominant events of the 16th century. The discovery of new lands posed unanswerable questions and contributed to the crumbling of medieval foundations.

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